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1920 

'v.l      • 

NX.  STATE   UNIVERSITY     D.H.   HILL   LIBRARY 


S00348669  - 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DAT 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUI 
JECT  TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  A 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATIO 
DESK, 


1977 
OCT  1  9  1988 


-  ij* 


\  5  1996 


•  w/    /    \J 


fVorks  by  CHARLES  DARWIN 

The  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection;  or, 

The   Preservation  of  Favored  Races  in   the  Struggle  for  Life. 

2  vols. 

The  Descent  of  Man,  and  Selection  in  Relation  to  Sex. 

With  many  Illustrations. 

A  Naturalist's  Voyage  Around  the  World. 

Journal  of  Researches  into  the  Natural  History  and  Geology  of 
Countries  visited  during  the  voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  "Beagle."  Illus- 
trated with  Maps  and  100  Views  of  the  places  visited  and  de- 
scribed, chiefly  from  sketches  taken  on  the  spot,  by  R.  T.  Pritchett. 

The  Structure  and  Distribution  of  Coral  Reefs. 

Based  on  Observations  made  during  the  Voyage  of  the  "Beagle." 
With  Charts  and  Illustrations. 

Geological  Observations 

On  the  Volcanic  Islands  and  Parts  of  South  America  visited 
during  ths  Voyage  of  the  "Beagle."  With  Maps  and  Illustrations. 

Emotional  Expressions  of  Man  and  the  Lower  Animals. 

The  Variations  of  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication. 

With  a  Preface  by  Professor  Asa  Gray.  2  vols.    Illustrated, 

Insectivorous  Plants. 

DiflFerent  Forms  of  Flowers  on  Plants  of  the  Same  Species. 

With  Illustrations. 

The  Power  of  Movement  in  Plants. 

By  Charles  Darwin,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.,  assisted  by  Francis  Darwin. 
With  Illustrations. 

The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould  through  the  Action 
of  Worms 

With  Observations  on  their  Habits.    With  Illustrations. 


Publishers    D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY    New  York 


T-5  A 


THE    VARIATION    OF 


ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS 

UNDER    DOMESTICATION 


BY 

CHARLES  DARWIN,    M.A.,   F.  R.S.,  Etc, 


IN   TWO    VOLUMES 
VOL.    I 


JVITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW   YORK    AND    LONDON 

D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 

1920 


<3: 


PEEFACE  TO   THE   SECOND  EDITION. 


During  the  seven  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  pub- 
lication in  1868  of  the  first  edition  of  this  Work,  I  have 
continued  to  attend  to  the  same  subjects,  as  far  as  lay  in 
my  power;  and  I  have  thus  accumulated  a  large  body  of 
additional  facts,  chiefly  through  the  kindness  of  many  cor- 
respondents. Of  these  facts  I  have  been  able  here  to  use 
only  those  which  seemed  to  me  the  more  important.  I  have 
omitted  some  statements,  and  corrected  some  errors,  the 
discovery  of  which  I  owe  to  my  reviewers.  Many  addi- 
tional references  have  been  given.  The  eleventh  chapter, 
and  that  on  Pangenesis,  are  those  which  have  been  most 
altered,  parts  having  been  re-modelled;  but  I  will  give  a  list 
of  the  more  important  alterations  for  the  sake  of  those  who 
may  possess  the  first  edition  of  this  book. 


ni 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction Pages  1-13 

CHAPTER  I. 

Domestic  Dogs  and  Cats. 

Ancient  varieties  of  the  dog — Resemblance  of  domestic  dogs  in  various 
countries  to  native  canine  species — Animals  not  acquainted  with  man 
at  first  fearless — Dogs  resembling  wolves  and  jackals — Habit  of  bark- 
ing acquired  and  lost — Feral  dogs — Tan-coloured  eye-spots — Period  of 
gestation — Offensive  odour — Fertility  of  the  races  when  crossed — Dif- 
ferences in  the  several  races  in  part  due  to  descent  from  distinct  spe- 
cies— Differences  in  the  skull  and  teeth — Differences  in  the  body,  in 
constitution — Few  important  differences  have  been  fixed  by  selection 
— Direct  action  of  climate — Water-dogs  with  palmated  feet — ^History 
of  the  changes  which  certain  English  races  of  the  dog  have  gradually 
undergone  through  selection — Extinction  of  the  less  improved  sub- 
breeds. 

Cats,  crossed  with  several  species — Different  breeds  found  only  in  sepa- 
rated countries — Direct  effects  of  the  conditions  of  life — Feral  cats — 
Individual  variability 14-48 

CHAPTER  XL 
Horses  and  Asses. 

Horses. — Differences  in  the  breeds — Individual  variability  of— Direct  ef- 
fects of  the  conditions  of  life— Can  withstand  much  cold— Breeds  much 
modified  by  selection— Colours  of  the  horse— Dappling— Dark  stripes 
on  the  spine,  legs,  shoulders,  and  forehead— Dun-coloured  horses  most 
frequently  striped — Stripes  probably  due  to  reversion  to  the  primitive 
state  of  the  horse. 

Asses.— Breeds  of— Colour  of— Leg-  and  shoulder-  stripes— Shoulder-stripes 
sometimes  absent,  sometimes  forked 49-65 

CHAPTER   III. 

Pigs — Cattle — Sheep — Goats. 

Pigs  belong  to  two  distinct  types,  Sus  scrofa  and  indi cms— Torfschv^oin— 
Japan  pigs— Fertility  of  crossed  pigs— Changes  in  the  skull  of  the 
highly  cultivated  races — Convergence  of  character— Gestation— Solid- 

V 


yi  CONTENTS. 

hoofed  swine — Curious  appendages  to  the  jaws — Decrease  in  size  or 
the  tusks — Young  pigs  longitudinally  striped — Feral  pigs — Crossed 
breeds. 

Cattle. — Zebu  a  distinct  species — European  cattle  probably  descended 
from  three  wild  forms — All  the  races  now  fertile  together — British 
park  cattle — On  the  colour  of  the  aboriginal  species — Constitutional 
differences — South  African  races — South  American  races — Niata  cattle 
— Origin  of  the  various  races  of  cattle. 

Sheep. — Remarkable  races  of — Variations  attached  to  the  male  sex — 
Adaptations  to  various  conditions — Gestation  of — Changes  in  the 
wool — Semi-monstrous  breeds. 

Goats. — Eemarkable  variations  of Pages  66-103 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Domestic  Rabbits. 

Domestic  rabbits  descended  from  the  common  wild  rabbit — Ancient  domes- 
tication— Ancient  selection — Large  lop-eared  rabbits — Various  breeds 
— Fluctuating  characters — Origin  of  the  Himalayan  breed — Curious 
case  of  inheritance — Feral  rabbits  in  Jamaica  and  the  Falkland  Is- 
lands— Porto  Santo  feral  rabbits — Osteological  characters — Skull — 
Skull  of  half-lop  rabbits — Variations  in  the  skull  analogous  to  differ- 
ences in  different  species  of  hares — Vertebrae — Sternum — Scapula — 
Effects  of  use  and  disuse  on  the  proportions  of  the  limbs  and  body — 
Capacity  of  the  skull  and  reduced  size  of  the  brain — Summary  on  the 
modifications  of  domesticated  rabbits 104-133 


CHAPTER  V. 

Domestic  Pigeons. 

Enumeration  and  description  of  the  several  breeds — Individual  variability 
— Variations  of  a  remarkable  nature — Osteological  characters  :  skull, 
lower  jaw,  number  of  vertebrae — Correlation  of  growth  :  tongue  with 
beak  ;  eyelids  and  nostrils  with  wattled  skin — Number  of  wing- 
feathers,  and  length  of  wing — Colour  and  down — Webbed  and  feath- 
ered feet — On  the  effects  of  disuse — Length  of  feet  in  correlation  with 
length  of  beak — Length  of  sternum,  scapula,  and  furculum — Length 
of  wings — Summary  on  the  points  of  difference  in  the  several  breeds. 

134-185 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Pigeons — continued. 

On  the  aboriginal  parent-stock  of  the  several  domestic  races — Habits  of 
life — Wild  races  of  the  rock-pigeon — Dovecot-pigeons — Proofs  of  the 
descent  of  the  several  races  from  Columbia  livia — Fertility  of  the  races 
when  crossed— Reversion  to  the  plumage  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon — 
Circumstances  favourable  to  the  formation  of  the  races — Antiquity 
and  history  of  the  principal  races — Manner  of  their  formation — Selec- 
tion— Unconscious  selection — Care  taken  by  fanciers  in  selecting  their 
birds — Slightly  different  strains  gradually  change  into  well-marked 
breeds — Extinction  of  intermediate  forms — Certain  breeds  remain 
permanent,  whilst  others  change — Summary  .        .        .        .     186-231 


CONTENTS.  vii 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Fowls. 

Brief  descriptions  of  the  chief  breeds— Arguments  in  favour  of  their  de- 
scent from  several  species— Arguments  in  favour  of  all  the  breeds 
having  descended  from  Galliis  6a/ifcii'«— Reversion  to  the  parent- 
stock  in  colour— Analogous  variations— Ancient  history  of  the  fowl- 
External  differences  between  the  several  breeds — Eggs— Chickens — 
Secondary  sexual  characters— Wing-  and  tail-  feathers,  voice,  disjjosi- 
tiou,  etc.— Osteological  diHerences  in  the  skull,  vertebrie,  etc.— Ellecta 
of  use  and  disuse  on  certain  parts — Correlation  of  growth. 

Pages  232-284 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

Duck — Goose — Pe  acoc^k  —  Turkey — Guinea-Fowl — Canary-Bird — 
GoLu-FisH — Hive-Bees — Silk-Moths. 

Ducks,  several  breeds  of — Progress  of  domestication — Origin  of  from  the- 
common  wild-duck — Diiferences  in  the  different  breeds — Osteological 
difierences — Effects  of  use  and  disuse  on  the  limb-bones. 

Goose,  anciently  domesticated — Little  variation  of — Sebastopol  breed. 

Peacock,  origin  of  black-shouldered  breed. 

Turkey,  breeds  of — Crossed  with  the  United  States  species — Effects  of 
climate  on. 

Guinea- Fowl,  Canary-Bird,  Gold-Fish,  Hive-Bees. 

Silk-Moths,  species  and  breeds  of — Anciently  domesticated — Care  in 
their  selection — Differences  in  the  different  races — In  the  egg,  cater- 
pillar and  cocoon  states — Inheritance  of  characters — Imperfect  wings 
— Lost  instincts — Correlated  characters 285-315. 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Cultivated  Plants  :  Cereal  and  Culinary  Plants. 

Preliminary  Remarks  on  the  number  and  parentage  of  cultivated 
plants — First  steps  in  cultivation — Geographical  distribution  of  culti- 
vated plants. 

Cerealia. — Doubts  on  the  number  of  species. Wheat :  varieties  of — 

Individual  variability — Changed  habits — Selection — Ancient  history 

of   the    varieties. Maize :   Great    variation    of — Direct    action    of 

climate  on. 

Culinary  Plants. — Cabbages  :  Varieties  of,   in  foliage  and  stems,  but 

not  in  other  parts — Parentage  of — Other  species  of  Brassica. Peas  r 

amount  of  difference  in  the  several  kinds,  chiefly  in  the  pods  and 
seed — Some  varieties  constant,  some  highly  variable — Do  not  inter- 
cross.  Beans. Potatoes  :  numerous  varieties  of — Differing  little, 

except  in  the  tubers — Characters  inherited      ....     316-344 

CHAPTER  X. 

Plants  continued — Fruits — Ornamental  Trees — Flowers. 

Fruits — Grapes — Vary  in  odd  and  trifling  particulars. Mulberry — The 

Orange  group — Singular  results  from  crossing. Peach  and  Necta- 
rine— Bud-variation — Analogous  variation — Relation  to  the  Almond. 
Apricot. Plums — Variation  in  their  stones. Cherries — Sin- 


yiii  CONTENTS. 

gular  varieties  of. Apple. Pear. Strawberry — Interblending 

of  the  original  forms. Gooseberry — Steady  increase  in  size  of  the 

fruit — Varieties    of. Walnut. Nut. Cucurbitaceous  plants — 

Wonderful  variation  of. 
Oenamextal  Trees — Their  variation    in    degree    and    kind — Ash-tree 

— Scotch-fir — Hawthorn. 
Flowers— Multiple  origin  of  many  kinds — Variation  in  constitutional 

peculiarities — Kind  of  variation. Roses — Several  species  cultivated. 

Pansy. Dahlia. Hyacinth — History  and  variaticjn  of. 

Pages  345-387 

CHAPTER   XI. 

On  Bud- variation,  and  on  Certain  Anomalous  Modes  of  Repro- 
duction AND  Variation. 

Bud-variation  in  the  peach,  plum,  cherry,  vine,  gooseberry,  currant,  and 
banana,  as  shown  by  the  modified  fruit — In  flowers :  camellias, 
azaleas,  chrysanthemums,  roses,  etc. — On  the  running  of  the  colour 
in  carnations — Bud-variations  in  leaves — Variations  by  suckers,  tu- 
bers, and  bulbs — On  the  breaking  of  tulips— Bud-variations  graduate 
into  changes  consequent  on  changed  conditions  of  life — Graft-hybrids 
— On  the  segregation  of  the  parental  characters  in  seminal  hybrids  by 
bud-variation — On  the  direct  or  immediate  action  of  foreign  pollen  on 
the  mother-plant — On  the  effects  of  a  previous  impregnation  on  the 
subsequent  offspring  of  female  animals — Conclusion  and  summary. 

388-433 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Inheritance. 

Wonderful  nature  of  inheritance — Pedigrees  of  our  domesticated  animals 
— Inheritance  not  due  to  chance — Trifling  characters  inherited — Dis- 
eases inherited — Peculiarities  in  the  eye  inherited — Diseases  in  the 
horse — Longevity  and  vigour — Asymmetrical  deviations  of  structure 
— Polydactylism  and  regrowth  of  supernumerary  digits  after  amputa- 
tion— Cases  of  several  children  similarly  aflected  from  non-afiected 
parents — Weak  and  fluctuating  inheritance  :  in  weeping  trees,  in 
dwarfness,  colour  of  fruit  and  flowers — Colour  of  horses — Non-inherit- 
ance in  certain  cases — Inheritance  of  structure  and  habits  overborne 
by  hostile  conditions  of  life,  by  incessantly  recurring  variability,  and 
by  reversion — Conclusion 434-461 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTKATIONS. 


riG.  PAGE 

1.  Dun  Devonshire  Pony,  with  shoulder,  spinal,  and  leg  stripes  57 

2.  Head  of  Japan  or  Masked  Pig 71 

3.  Head  of  Wild  Boar,  and  of  "Golden  Days,"  a  pig  of  the 

Yorkshire  large  breed 73 

4.  Old  Irish  Pig  with  jaw-appendages 77 

5.  Half-lop  Rabbit 109 

6.  Skull  of  Wild  Rabbit 118 

7.  Skull  of  large  Lop-eared  Rabbit 118 

8.  Part  of  Zygomatic  Arch,  showing  the   projecting  end   of 

the  malar  bone  of  the  auditory  meatus,  of  Rabbits        .  119 

9.  Posterior  end  of  Skull,  showing  the  inter-parietal  bone,  of 

Rabbits 120 

10.  Occipital  Foramen  of  Rabbits 120 

11.  Skull  of  Half-lop  Rabbit 121 

12.  Atlas  Vertebrae  of  Rabbits 123 

13.  Third  Cervical  Vertebrae  of  Rabbits 124 

14.  Dorsal  Vertebnis,  from  sixth  to  tenth  inclusive,  of  Rabbits  124 

15.  Terminal  Bone  of  Sternum  of  Rabbits          ....  125 

16.  Acromion  of  Scapula  of  Rabbits 125 

17.  The  Rock-Pigeon,  or  Columba  Livia 138 

18.  English  Pouter I'll 

19.  English  Carrier 144 

20.  English  Barb 149 

21.  English  Fantail 151 

22.  African  Owl 1^3 

ix 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 

40. 
41. 
42. 

43. 


Short-faced  English  Tumbler 
Skulls  of  Pigeons,  viewed  laterally 
Lower  Jaws  of  Pigeons,  seen  from  above 
Skull  of  Runt,  seen  from  above     . 
Lateral  view  of  Jaws  of  Pigeons   . 
Scapulas  of  Pigeons, 
Furcula  of  Pigeons 


Spanish  Fowl    . 

Hamburgh  Fowl 

Polish  Fowl      . 

Occipital  Foramen  of  the  Skulls  of  Fowls 

Skulls  of  Fowls,  viewed  from  above,  a  little  obliquely 

Longitudinal  sections  of  Skulls  of  Fowls,  viewed  laterally 

Skull  of  Horned  Fowl,  viewed  from  above,  a  little  obliquely 

Sixth  Cervical  Vertebrae  of  Fowls,  viewed  laterally    . 

Extremity  of  the  Furcula  of  Fowls,  viewed  laterally 

Skulls  of  Ducks,  viewed  laterally,  reduced  to  two-thirds  of 

the  natural  size 

Cervical  Vertebrae  of  Ducks,  of  natural  size 

Pods  of  the  Common  Pea 

Peach  and  Almond  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed  edge- 
ways       

Plum  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally 


PAGE 

157 
169 
170 
171 
171 
173 
173 
234 
235 
236 
269 
270 
272 
274 
236 
237 

292 
293 
341 

351 

359 


TABLE   OF  PKINCIPAL  ADDITIONS  AND 

COKRECTIONS. 


First 

Edition, 

Vol.  I. 


Page 
34 


38 
51 

102 
162 
217 

290 


Second 

Edition, 

Vol.  I. 


399 

400 
404 

Vol.  II. 
14 


Page 
33 


37 
52 

103 
167 
224 

300 


296 

306 

314 

325 

326 

338 

374 

398 

396 

410 

419 

420 
424 

448 


Dr.   Burt  Wilder's  observations  on   the   brains    of 

different  breeds  of  the  Dog. 
Degeneracy  of  Dogs  imported  into  Guinea. 
Difference  in  the  number  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  in 

the  races  or  species  of  the  Horse. 
Hairy  appendages  to  the  throats  of  Goats. 
Sexual  differences  in  colour  in  the  domestic  Pigeon. 
Movements  like  those  of  the  Tumbler-pigeon,  caused 

by  injury  to  the  brain. 
Additional  facts  with  respect  to  the  Black-shouldered 

Peacock. 
Ancient  selection  of  Gold-fish  in  China. 
Major  Hallett's  "  Pedigree  Wheat." 
The  common  radish  descended  from  Raphanus  raph' 

anistrum. 
Several  additional  cases  of  bud-variation  given. 
An  abstract  of  all  the  cases  recently  published  of 

graft-hybrids  in  the  potato,  together  with  a  general 

summary  on  graft-hybridisation. 
An  erroneous  statement  with  respect  to  the  pollen 

of  the  date-palm  affecting  the  fruit  of  the  Chamae- 

rops  omitted. 
New  cases   of  the   direct  action  of  pollen  on  the 

mother-plant. 
Additional  and  remarkable  instances  of  the  action 

of  the  male  parent  on  the  future  progeny  of  the 

female. 
An  erroneous  statement  corrected,  with  respect  to 

the  regrowth  of  supernumerary  digits  after  ampu- 
tation. 

zi 


xii  TABLE  OF  PRINCIPAL  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 


{Continued.) 


First 
Edition. 
Vol.  II. 

Second 

Edition, 

Vol.  I. 

Pa^e 
23 

Page 
455 

23 

456 

24 

457 

Vol.  II. 

43 

17 

72 

47 

105 

80 

120 

95 

123 

99 

135 

113  ^ 

to 

to  - 

141 

118  ) 

149 

127 

152 

130 

230 

208 

273 

253 

281 

262 

317 

299 

324 

306  \ 

to  - 

to 

328 

317) 

339 

322 

357 

338  ^ 
to  [ 

to 

404 

387  J 

Additional  facts  with  respect  to  the  inherited  effects 
of  circumcision. 

Dr.  Brown-Sequard  on  the  inherited  effects  of  opera- 
tions on  the  Guinea-pig. 

Other  cases  of  inherited  mutilations. 

An  additional  case  of  reversion  due  to  a  cross. 

Inheritance  as  limited  by  sex. 

Two  varieties  of  maize  which  cannot  be  crossed. 

Some  additional  facts  on  the  advantages  of  cross- 
breeding in  animals. 

Discussion  on  the  effects  of  close  interbreeding  in 
the  case  of  man. 

Additional  cases  of  plants  sterile  with  pollen  from 
the  same  plant. 

Mr.  Sclater  on  the  infertility  of  animals  under  con- 
finement. 

The  Aperea  a  distinct  species  from  the  Guinea-pig. 

Prof.  Jager  on  hawks  killing  light-coloured  pigeons. 

Prof.  Weismann  on  the  effects  of  isolation  in  the 
development  of  species. 

The  direct  action  of  the  conditions  of  life  in  causing 
variation. 

Mr.  Romanes  on  rudimentary  parts. 

Some  additional  cases  of  correlated  variability. 

On  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire's  law  of  "soi  poicr  soi." 
The  chapter  on  Pangenesis  has  been  largely  altered 
and  re-modelled;  but  the  essential  principles  re- 
main the  same. 


THE   VARIATION    OF   ANIMALS   AND 
PLANTS   UNDER   DOMESTICATION. 


mTEODUCTIOK 

The  object  of  this  work  is  not  to  describe  all  the  many 
races  of  animals  which  have  been  domesticated  by  man,  and 
of  the  plants  which  have  been  cultivated  by  him;  even  if  I 
possessed  the  requisite  knowledge,  so  gigantic  an  undertaking 
would  be  here  superfluous.  It  is  my  intention  to  give  under 
the  head  of  each  species  only  such  facts  as  I  have  been  able  to 
collect  or  observe,  showing  the  amount  and  nature  of  the 
changes  which  animals  and  plants  have  undergone  w^hilst 
under  man's  dominion,  or  which  bear  on  the  general  principles 
of  variation.  In  one  case  alone,  namely  in  that  of  the  do- 
mestic pigeon,  I  will  describe  fully  all  the  chief  races,  their 
history,  the  amount  and  nature  of  their  diiferences,  and  the 
probable  steps  by  which  they  have  been  formed.  I  have  se- 
lected this  case,  because,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  the  mate* 
rials  are  better  than  in  any  other ;  and  one  case  fully  described 
will  in  fact  illustrate  all  others.  But  I  shall  also  describe 
domesticated  rabbits,  fowls,  and  ducks,  with  considerable 
fulness. 

The  subjects  discussed  in  this  volume  are  so  connected 
that  it  is  not  a  little  difficult  to  decide  how  they  can  be  best 
arranged.  I  have  determined  in  the  first  part  to  give,  under 
the  heads  of  the  various  animals  and  plants,  a  large  body  of 
facts,  some  of  which  may  at  first  appear  but  little  related  to 
our  subject,  and  to  devote  the  latter  part  to  general  discus- 
sions. Whenever  I  have  found  it  necessary  to  give  numerous 
details,  in  support  of  any  proposition  or  conclusion,  small 

1 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

type  has  been  used.  The  reader  will,  I  think,  find  this  plan  a 
convenience,  for,  if  he  does  not  doubt  the  conclusion  or  care 
about  the  details,  he  can  easily  pass  them  over;  yet  I  may  be 
permitted  to  say  that  some  of  the  discussions  thus  printed 
deserve  attention,  at  least  from  the  professed  naturalist. 

It  may  be  useful  to  those  who  have  read  nothing  about 
[Natural  Selection,  if  I  here  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  whole 
subject  and  of  its  bearing  on  the  origin  of  species.^  This  is 
the  more  desirable,  as  it  is  impossible  in  the  present  work  to 
avoid  many  allusions  to  questions  which  will  be  fully  dis- 
cussed in  future  volumes. 

From  a  remote  period,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  man  has 
subjected  many  animals  and  plants  to  domestication  or  cul- 
ture. Man  has  no  power  of  altering  the  absolute  conditions 
•of  life;  he  cannot  change  the  climate  of  any  country;  he  adds 
no  new  element  to  the  soil;  but  he  can  remove  an  animal  or 
plant  from  one  climate  or  soil  to  another,  and  give  it  food  on 
which  it  did  not  subsist  in  its  natural  state.  It  is  an  error 
to  speak  of  man  "  tampering  with  nature  "  and  causing  varia- 
bility. If  a  man  drops  a  piece  of  iron  into  sulphuric  acid,  it 
cannot  be  said  strictly  that  he  makes  the  sulphate  of  iron,  he 
only  allows  their  elective  affinities  to  come  into  play.  If  or- 
ganic beings  had  not  possessed  an  inherent  tendency  to  vary, 
man  could  have  done  nothing."  He  unintentionally  exposes 
his  animals  and  plants  to  various  conditions  of  life,  and  varia- 
bility supervenes,  w^hich  he  cannot  even  prevent  or  check. 
Consider  the  simple  case  of  a  plant  which  has  been  cultivated 
during  a  long  time  in  its  native  country,  and  which  conse- 
quently has  not  been  subjected  to  any  change  of  climate.  It 
has  been  protected  to  a  certain  extent  from  the  competing 
roots  of  plants  of  other  kinds ;  it  has  generally  been  grown  in 
manured  soil;  but  probablj^  not  richer  than  that  of  many  an 
alluvial  flat;  and  lastly,  it  has  been  exposed  to  changes  in  its 

^  To   any  one   who   has   atten-  -  M.      Ponchet      has      recently 

lively    read   mv    '  Origin   of    Spe-  ('  Plurality  of  Races,'  Eng.  Trans- 

cies  '    this    Introduction    will    be  lat..  1864,  p.  83,  »S:c.)  insisted  that 

superfluous.     As  I   stated   in  that  variation      under      domestication 

work   that  I   should  soon   publish  throws    no    light    on    the    natural 

the  facts  on  which  the  conclusions  modification  of  species.     I  cannot 

given  in  it  were  founded,   I   here  perceive    the    force    of    his    argu- 

beg    permission    to    remark    that  ments,    or,    to    speak    more    accu- 

the  great  delay  in  publishing  this  rately,    of   his   assertions   to   this 

first    work    ha's    been    caused    by  effect, 
continued  ill-health. 


NATURAL  SELECTION.  3 

conditions,  being  grown  sometimes  in  one  district  and  some- 
times in  another,  in  different  soils.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, scarcely  a  plant  can  be  named,  though  cultivated  in 
the  rudest  manner,  which  has  not  given  birth  to  several  varie- 
ties. It  can  hardly  be  maintained  that  during  the  many 
changes  which  this  earth  has  undergone,  and  during  the  natu- 
ral migrations  of  plants  from  one  land  or  island  to  another, 
tenanted  by  different  species,  that  such  plants  will  not  often 
have  been  subjected  to  changes  in  their  conditions  analogous 
to  those  which  almost  inevitably  cause  cultivated  plants  to 
vary,  l^o  doubt  man  selects  varying  individuals,  sows  their 
seeds,  and  again  selects  their  varying  offspring.  But  the  ini- 
tial variation  on  which  man  works,  and  without  which  he  can 
do  nothing,  is  caused  by  slight,  changes  in  the  conditions  of 
life,  which  must  often  have  occurred  under  nature.  Man, 
therefore,  may  be  said  to  have  been  trying  an  exjDeriment  on  a 
gigantic  scale;  and  it  is  an  experiment  which  nature  during 
the  long  lapse  of  time  has  incessantly  tried.  Hence  it  follows 
that  the  principles  of  domestication  are  important  for  us. 
The  main  result  is  that  organic  beings  thus  treated  have 
varied  largely,  and  the  variations  have  been  inherited.  This 
has  apparently  been  one  chief  cause  of  the  belief  long  held 
by  some  few  naturalists  that  species  in  a  state  of  nature  un- 
dergo change. 

I  shall  in  this  volume  treat,  as  fully  as  my  materials  per- 
mit, the  whole  subject  of  variation  under  domestication.  We 
may  thus  hope  to  obtain  some  light,  little  though  it  be,  on  the 
causes  of  variability, — on  the  laws  which  govern  it,  such  as 
the  direct  action  of  climate  and  food,  the  effects  of  use  and 
disuse,  and  of  correlation  of  growth, — and  on  the  amount  of 
change  to  which  domesticated  organisms  are  liable.  We  shall 
learn  something  of  the  laws  of  inheritance,  of  the  effects  of 
crossing  different  breeds,  and  on  that  sterility  which  often 
supervenes  when  organic  beings  are  removed  from  their  natu- 
ral conditions  of  life,  and  likewise  when  they  are  too  closely 
interbred.  During  this  investigation  we  shall  see  that  the 
principal  of  Selection  is  highly  important.  Although  man 
does  not  cause  variability  and  cannot  even  prevent  it,  he  can 
select,  preserve,  and  accumulate  the  variations  given  to  him  by 
the  hand  of  nature  almost  in  any  way  which  he  chooses ;  and 
2 


I 


4:  INTRODUCTION. 

thus  he  can  certainly  produce  a  great  result.  Selection  may 
be  followed  either  methodically  and  intentionally,  or  uncon- 
sciously and  unintentionally.  Man  may  select  and  preserve 
each  successive  variation,  with  the  distinct  intention  of  im- 
proving and  altering  a  breed,  in  accordance  with  a  precon- 
ceived idea;  and  by  thu'fe  adding  up  variations,  often  so 
slight  as  to  be  imperceptible  by  an  uneducated  eye,,  he  has 
effected  wonderful  changes  and  improvements.  It  can,  also, 
be  clearly  shown  that  man,  without  any  intention  or  thought 
of  improving  the  breed,  by  preserving  in  each  successive 
generation  the  individuals  which  he  prizes  most,  and  by 
destroying  the  worthless  individuals,  slowly,  though  surely, 
induces  great  changes.  As  the  will  of  man  thus  comes  into 
play,  we  can  understand  how  it  is  that  domesticated  breeds 
show  adaptation  to  his  wants  and  pleasures.  We  can  fur- 
ther understand  how  it  is  that  domestic  races  of  animals  and 
cultivated  races  of  plants  often  exhibit  an  abnormal  charac- 
ter, as  compared  with  natural  species;  for  they  have  been 
modified  not  for  their  own  benefit,  but  for  that  of  man. 

In  another  work  I  shall  discuss,  if  time  and  health  permit, 
the  variability  of  organic  beings  in  a  state  of  nature ;  namely, 
the  individual  diiferences  presented  by  animals  and  plants, 
and  those  slightly  greater  and  generally  inherited  differences 
W'hich  are  ranked  hy  naturalists  as  varieties  or  geogra])hical 
races.  We  shall  see  how  difficult,  or  rather  how  impossible 
it  often  is,  to  distinguish  between  races  and  sub-species,  as 
the  less  well-marked  forms  have  sometimes  been  denominated ; 
and  again  between  sub-species  and  true  species.  I  shall  fur- 
ther attempt  to  show  that  it  is  the  common  and  widely  rang- 
ing, or,  as  they  may  be  called,  the  dominant  species,  which 
most  frequently  varj';  and  that  it  is  the  large  and  flourish- 
ing genera  which  include  the  greatest  number  of  varying 
species.  Varieties,  as  we  shall  see,  may  justly  be  called  in- 
cipient species. 

But  it  may  be  urged,  granting  that  organic  beings  in  a 
state  of  nature  present  some  varieties, — that  their  organiza- 
tion is  in  some  slight  degree  plastic ;  granting  that  many  ani- 
mals and  plants  have  varied  greatly  under  domestication,  and 
that  man  by  his  power  of  selection  has  gone  on  accumulating 
such  variations  until  he  has  made  strongly  marked  and  firmly 


NATURAL  SELECTION.  5. 

inherited  races ;  granting  all  this,  how,  it  may  be  asked,  have 
species  arisen  in  a  state  of  nature?  The  differences  between 
natural  varieties  are  slight;  whereas  the  diiferences  are  con- 
siderable between  the  species  of  the  same  genus,  and  great 
between  the  species  of  distinct  genera.  How  do  these  lesser 
differences  become  augmented  into  the  greater  difference? 
How  do  varieties,  or  as  I  have  called  them  incipient  species, 
I  become  converted  into  true  and  well-defined  species?  How 
has  each  new  species  been  adapted  to  the  surrounding  physi- 
cal conditions,  and  to  the  other  forms  of  life  on  which  it  in 
any  way  depends?  We  see  on  every  side  of  us  innumerable 
adaptations  and  contrivances,  which  have  justly  excited  the 
highest  admiration  of  every  observer.  There  is,  for  instance, 
a  fly  (Cecidomyia)  *  which  deposits  its  eggs  within  the  sta- 
mens of  a  Scrophularia,  and  secretes  a  poison  which  produces. 
a  gall,  on  w^hich  the  larva  feeds ;  but  there  is  another  insect 
(Misocampus)  which  deposits  its  eggs  w^ithin  the  body  of  the 
larva  within  the  gall,  and  is  thus  nourished  by  its  living  prey ; 
so  that  here  a  hymenopterous  insect  depends  on  a  dipterous 
insect,  and  this  depends  on  its  power  of  producing  a  mon- 
strous growth  in  a  particular  organ  of  a  particular  plant.  So 
it  is,  in  a  more  or  less  plainly  marked  manner,  in  thousands; 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  cases,  with  the  lowest  as  well  as. 
with  the  highest  productions  of  nature. 

This  problem  of  the  conversion  of  varieties  into  species, — 
that  is,  the  augmentation  of  the  slight  differences  character- 
istic of  varieties  into  the  greater  differences  characteristic  of 
species  and  genera,  including  the  admirable  adaptations  of 
each  being  to  its  complex  organic  and  inorganic  conditions  of 
life, — has  been  briefly  treated  in  my  '  Origin  of  Species.'  It 
was  there  shown  that  all  organic  beings,  without  exception, 
tend  to  increase  at  so  high  a  ratio,  that  no  district,  no  station, 
not  even  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  or  the  whole  ocean, 
would  hold  the  progeny  of  a  single  pair  after  a  certain  num- 
ber of  generations.  The  inevitable  result  is  an  ever-recurrent 
Struggle  for  Existence.  It  has  truly  been  said  that  all  na- 
ture is  at  war;  the  strongest  ultimately  prevail,  the  weakest 
fail;  and  we  well  know  that  myriads  of  forms  have  disap- 

»  Leon  Dufour  in  '  Annales  des    Scienc.  Nat.'  (3rd  series,  Zoolog.),, 
torn.  V.  p.  6. 


•0  INTRODUCTION. 

peared  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  If  then  organic  beings 
in  a  state  of  nature  vary  even  in  a  slight  degree,  owing  to 
<changes  in  the  surrounding  conditions,  of  which  we  have 
abundant  geological  evidence,  or  from  any  other  cause;  if, 
in  the  long  course  of  ages,  inheritable  variations  ever  arise 
in  any  way  advantageous  to  any  being  under  its  excessively 
complex  and  changing  relations  of  life;  and  it  would  be  a 
strange  fact  if  beneficial  variations  did  never  arise,  seeing 
liow  many  have  arisen  which  man  has  taken  advantage  of  for 
his  own  profit  or  pleasure;  if  then  these  contingencies  ever 
'occur,  and  I  do  not  see  how  the  probability  of  their  occur- 
rence can  be  doubted,  then  the  severe  and  often-recur- 
rent struggle  for  existence  will  determine  that  those  varia- 
tions, however  slight,  which  are  favourable  shall  be  pre- 
served or  selected,  and  those  which  are  unfavourable  shall 
1)6  destroyed. 

This  preservation,  during  the  battle  for  life,  of  varieties 
^^hich  possess  any  advantage  in  structure,  constitution,  or 
instinct,  I  have  called  Natural  Selection;  and  Mr.  Herbert 
'Spencer  has  well  expressed  the  same  idea  by  the  Survival  of 
the  Fittest.  The  term  "  natural  selection "  is  in  some  re- 
spects a  bad  one,  as  it  seems  to  imply  conscious  choice;  but 
this  will  be  disregarded  after  a  little  familiarity.  ISTo  one  ob- 
jects to  chemists  speaking  of  "elective  afiinity;"  and  cer- 
tainly an  acid  has  no  more  choice  in  combining  with  a  base, 
than  the  conditions  of  life  have  in  determining  whether  or 
not  a  new  form  be  selected  or  preserved.  The  term  is  so  far 
a  good  one  as  it  brings  into  connection  the  production  of  do- 
mestic races  by  man's  power  of  selection,  and  the  natural 
preservation  of  varieties  and  species  in  a  state  of  nature. 
Tor  brevity  sake  I  sometimes  speak  of  natural  selection  as  an 
intelligent  power; — in  the  same  way  as  astronomers  speak  of 
the  attraction  of  gravity  as  ruling  the  movements  of  the  plan- 
ets, or  as  agriculturists  speak  of  man  making  domestic  races 
by  his  power  of  selection.  In  the  one  case,  as  in  the  other, 
selection,  does  nothing  without  variability,  and  this  depends 
in  some  manner  on  the  action  of  the  surrounding  circum- 
stances on  the  organism.  I  have,  also,  often  personified  the 
word  Nature;  for  I  have  found  it  difficult  to  avoid  this  am- 
loiguity;  but  I  mean  by  nature  only  the  aggregate  action  and 


NATURAL   SELECTION.  7 

product  of  many  natural  laws, — and  by  laws  only  the  ascer- 
tained sequence  of  events. 

It  has  been  shown  from  many  facts  that  the  largest 
amount  of  life  can  be  supported  on  each  area,  by  great  diver- 
sification or  divergence  in  the  structure  and  constitution  of 
its  inhabitants.  We  have,  also,  seen  that  the  continued  pro- 
duction of  new  forms  through  natural  selection,  which  im- 
plies that  each  new  variety  has  some  advantage  over  others^ 
inevitably  leads  to  the  extermination  of  the  older  and  less 
improved  forms.  These  latter  are  almost  necessarily  inter- 
mediate in  structure,  as  well  as  in  descent,  between  the  last- 
produced  forms  and  their  original  parent-species.  IS^ow,  if 
w^e  suppose  a  species  to  produce  two  or  more  varieties,  and 
these  in  the  course  of  time  to  produce  other  varieties,  the 
principal  of  good  being  derived  from  diversification  of  struc- 
ture will  generally  lead  to  the  preservation  of  the  most  di- 
vergent varieties ;  thus  the  lesser  differences  characteristic  of 
varieties  come  to  be  augmented  into  the  greater  differences 
characteristic  of  species,  and,  by  the  extermination  of  the 
older  intermediate  forms,  new  species  end  by  being  distinctly 
defined  objects.  Thus,  also,  we  shall  see  how  it  is  that  or- 
ganic beings  can  be  classed  by  what  is  called  a  natural  method 
in  distinct  groups — species  under  genera,  and  genera  under 
families. 

As  all  the  inhabitants  of  each  country  may  be  said,  owing- 
to  their  high  rate  of  reproduction,  to  be  striving  to  increase 
in  numbers ;  as  each  form  comes  into  competition  with  many 
other  forms  in  the  struggle  for  life, — for  destroy  any  one 
and  its  place  will  be  seized  by  others;  as  every  part  of  the 
organization  occasionally  varies  in  some  slight  degree;  and 
as  natural  selection  acts  exclusively  by  the  preservation  of 
variations  which  are  advantageous  under  the  excessively  com- 
plex conditions  to  which  each  being  is  exposed,  no  limit  ex- 
ists to  the  number,  singularity,  and  perfection  of  the  con- 
trivances and  co-adaptations  which  may  thus  be  produced. 
An  animal  or  a  plant  may  thus  slowly  become  related  in 
its  structure  and  habits  in  the  most  intricate  manner  to 
many  other  animals  and  plants,  and  to  the  physical  condi- 
tions of  its  home.  Variations  in  the  organization  will  in 
some  cases  be  aided  by  habit,  or  by  the  use  and  disuse  of 


;8  INTRODUCTION. 

parts,  and  they  will  be  governed  by  the  direct  action  of 
the  surrounding  physical  conditions  and  by  correlation  of 
growth. 

On  the  principles  here  briefly  sketched  out,  there  is  no 
innate  or  necessary  tendency  in  each  being  to  its  own  ad- 
vancement in  the  scale  of  organization.  We  are  almost  com- 
pelled to  look  at  the  specialization  or  differentiation  of  parts 
or  organs  for  different  functions  as  the  best  or  even  sole 
standard  of  advancement ;  for  by  such  division  of  labour  each 
function  of  body  and  mind  is  better  performed.  And  as 
natural  selection  acts  exclusively  through  the  preservation  of 
profitable  modifications  of  structure,  and  as  the  conditions  of 
life  in  each  area  generally  become  more  and  more  complex 
from  the  increasing  number  of  different  forms  which  inhabit 
it  and  from  most  of  these  forms  acquiring  a  more  and  more 
perfect  structure,  we  may  confidently  believe,  that,  on  the 
whole,  organization  advances.  Nevertheless  a  very  simple 
form  fitted  for  very  simple  conditions  of  life  might  remain 
for  indefinite  ages  unaltered  or  unimproved;  for  what  would 
it  profit  an  infusorial  animalcule,  for  instance,  or  an  intes- 
tinal worm,  to  become  highly  organized  ?  Members  of  a  high 
group  might  even  become,  and  this  apparently  has  often  oc- 
curred, fitted  for  simpler  conditions  of  life;  and  in  this  case 
natural  selection  would  tend  to  simplify  or  degrade  the  or- 
ganization, for  complicated  mechanism  for  simple  actions 
would  be  useless  or  even  disadvantageous. 

The  arguments  opposed  to  the  theory  of  ISTatural  Selection, 
have  been  discussed  in  my  '  Origin  of  Species,'  as  far  as  the 
size  of  the  work  permitted,  under  the  following  heads:  the 
difficulty  in  understanding  how  very  simple  organs  have  been 
converted  by  small  and  graduated  steps  into  highly  perfect 
and  complex  organs;  the  marvellous  facts  of  Instinct;  the 
whole  question  of  Hybridity;  and,  lastly,  the  absence  in  our 
known  geological  formations  of  innumerable  links  connect- 
ing all  allied  species.  Although  some  of  these  difficulties 
are  of  great  weight,  we  shall  see  that  many  of  them  are 
explicable  on  the  theory  of  natural  selection,  and  are  other- 
wise inexplicable. 

In  scientific  investigations  it  is  permitted  to  invent  any 
hypothesis,  and  if  it  explains  various  large  and  independent 


NATURAL  SELECTION.  9 

classes  of  facts  it  rises  to  the  rank  of  a  well-grounded  theory. 
The  undulations  of  the  ether  and  even  its  existence  are  hypo- 
thetical, yet  every  one  now  admits  the  undulatory  theory  of 
light.  The  principle  of  natural  selection  may  be  looked  at  as 
a  mere  hypothesis,  but  rendered  in  some  degree  probable  by 
what  we  positively  know  of  the  variability  of  organic  beings 
in  a  state  of  nature, — by  what  we  positively  know  of  the 
struggle  for  existence,  and  the  consequent  almost  inevitable 
preservation  of  favourable  variations, — and  from  the  analogi- 
cal formation  of  domestic  races.  Xow  this  hypothesis  may 
be  tested, — and  this  seems  to  me  the  only  fair  and  legiti- 
mate manner  of  considering  the  whole  question, — by  trying 
whether  it  explains  several  large  and  independent  classes  of 
facts;  such  as  the  geological  succession  of  organic  beings, 
their  distribution  in  past  and  present  times,  and  their  mutual 
affinities  and  homologies.  If  the  principle  of  natural  selec- 
tion does  explain  these  and  other  large  bodies  of  facts,  it 
ought  to  be  received.  On  the  ordinary  view  of  each  species 
having  been  independently  created,  we  gain  no  scientific  ex- 
planation of  any  one  of  these  facts.  We  can  only  say  that  it 
has  so  pleased  the  Creator  to  command  that  the  past  and  pres- 
ent inhabitants  of  the  world  should  appear  in  a  certain  order 
and  in  certain  areas ;  that  He  has  impressed  on  them  the 
most  extraordinary  resemblances,  and  has  classed  them  in 
groups  subordinate  to  groups.  But  by  such  statements  we 
gain  no  new  knowledge;  we  do  not  connect  together  facts 
and  laws;  we  explain  nothing. 

It  was  the  consideration  of  such  large  groups  of  facts 
as  these  which  first  led  me  to  take  up  the  present  subject. 
When  I  visited  during  the  voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Beagle,  the 
Galapagos  Archipelago,  situated  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  about 
600  miles  from  South  America,  I  found  myself  surrounded 
by  peculiar  species  of  birds,  reptiles,  and  plants,  existing 
nowhere  else  in  the  world.  Yet  they  nearly  all  bore  an 
American  stamp.  In  the  song  of  the  mocking-thrush,  in  the 
harsh  cry  of  the  carrion-hawk,  in  the  great  candlestick-like 
opuntias,  I  clearly  perceived  the  neighbourhood  of  America, 
though  the  islands  were  separated  by  so  many  miles  of  ocean 
from  the  mainland,  and  differed  much  in  their  geological 
constitution  and  climate.     Still  more  surprising  was  the  fact 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

that  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  separate  island  in  this 
small  archipelago  were  specifically  different,  though  most 
closely  related  to  each  other.  The  archipelago,  with  its 
innumerable  craters  and  bare  streams  of  lava,  appeared  to 
be  of  recent  origin;  and  thus  I  fancied  myself  brought  near 
to  the  very  act  of  creation.  I  often  asked  myself  how  these 
many  peculiar  animals  and  plants  had  been  produced:  the 
simplest  answer  seemed  to  be  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
several  islands  had  descended  from  each  other,  undergoing 
modification  in  the  course  of  their  descent;  and  that  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  archipelago  were  descended  from  those  of 
the  nearest  land,  namely  America,  whence  colonists  w^ould 
naturally  have  been  derived.  But  it  long  remained  to  me  an 
inexplicable  problem  how  the  necessary  degree  of  modification 
could  have  been  effected,  and  it  w^ould  have  thus  remained 
for  ever,  had  I  not  studied  domestic  productions,  and  thus 
acquired  a  just  idea  of  the  power  of  Selection.  As  soon  as  I 
had  fully  realized  this  idea,  I  saw,  on  reading  Malthus  on 
Population,  that  Natural  Selection  was  the  inevitable  result 
of  the  rapid  increase  of  all  organic  beings ;  for  I  was  prepared 
to  appreciate  the  struggle  for  existence  by  having  long  stud- 
ied the  habits  of  animals. 

Before  visiting  the  Galapagos  I  had  collected  many  ani- 
mals whilst  travelling  from  north  to  south  on  both  sides  of 
America,  and  everywhere,  under  conditions  of  life  as  differ- 
ent as  it  is  possible  to  conceive,  American  forms  were  met 
with — species  replacing  species  of  the  same  peculiar  genera. 
Thus  it  was  when  the  Cordilleras  were  ascended,  or  the  thick 
tropical  forests  penetrated,  or  the  fresh  waters  of  America 
searched.  Subsequently  I  visited  other  countries,  which  in 
all  their  conditions  of  life  were  incomparably  more  like  parts 
of  South  America,  than  the  different  parts  of  that  continent 
are  to  each  other;  yet  in  these  countries,  as  in  Australia  or 
Southern  Africa,  the  traveller  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the 
entire  difference  of  their  productions.  Again  the  reflection 
was  forced  on  me  that  community  of  descent  from  the  early 
inhabitants  of  South  America  would  alone  explain  the  wide 
prevalence  of  American  tjT^es  throughout  that  immense  area. 

To  exhume  with  one's  own  hands  the  bones  of  extinct 
and  gigantic  quadrupeds  brings  the  whole  question  of  the 


c 


NATURAL  SELECTION".  H 

succession  of  species  vividly  before  one's  mind;  and  I  found 
in  South  America  great  pieces  of  tesselated  armour  exactly 
like,  but  on  a  magnificent  scale,  that  covering  the  pigmy 
armadillo;  I  had  found  great  teeth  like  those  of  the  living 
sloth,  and  bones  like  those  of  the  cavy.  An  analogous  succes- 
sion of  allied  forms  had  been  previously  observed  in  Austra- 
lia. Here  then  we  see  the  prevalence,  as  if  by  descent,  in 
time  as  in  space,  of  the  same  types  in  the  same  areas ;  and  in 
neither  does  the  similarity  of  conditions  by  any  means  seem 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  similarity  of  the  forms  of  life. 
It  is  notorious  that  the  fossil  remains  of  closely  consecutive 
formations  are  closely  allied  in  structure,  and  we  can  at  once 
understand  the  fact  if  they  are  closely  allied  by  descent.  The 
succession  of  the  many  distinct  species  of  the  same  genus 
throughout  the  long  series  of  geological  formations  seems  to 
have  been  unbroken  or  continuous.  Xew  species  come  in 
gradually  one  by  one.  Ancient  and  extinct  forms  of  life  are 
often  intermediate  in  character,  like  the  words  of  a  dead  lan- 
guage with  respect  to  its  several  offshoots  or  living  tongues. 
All  these  facts  seemed  to  me  to  point  to  descent  with  modi- 
fication as  the  means  of  production  of  new  species. 

The  innumerable  past  and  present  inhabitants  of  the 
world  are  connected  together  by  the  most  singular  and  com- 
plex affinities,  and  can  be  classed  in  groups  under  groups,  in 
the  same  manner  as  varieties  can  be  classed  under  species  and 
sub-varieties  under  varieties,  but  with  much  higher  grades, 
of  difference.  These  complex  affinities  and  the  rules  for  clas- 
sification, receive  a  rational  explanation  on  the  theory  of 
descent,  combined  with  the  principle  of  natural  selection, 
which  entails  divergence  of  character  and  the  extinction  of 
intermediate  forms.  How  inexplicable  is  the  similar  pattern 
of  the  hand  of  a  man,  the  foot  of  a  dog,  the  wing  of  a  bat, 
the  flipper  of  the  seal,  on  the  doctrine  of  independent  acts 
of  creation !  how  simply  explained  on  the  principle  of  the 
natural  selection  of  successive  slight  variations  in  the  di- 
verging descendants  from  a  single  progenitor!  So  it  is  with 
certain  parts  or  organs  in  the  same  individual  animal  or 
plant,  for  instance,  the  jaws  and  legs  of  a  crab,  or  the  petals, 
stamens,  and  pistils  of  a  flower.  During  the  many  changes 
to  which  in  the  course  of  time  organic  beings  have   been 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

subjected,  certain  organs  or  parts  have  occasionally  become 
at  first  of  little  use  and  ultimately  superfluous;  and  the  re- 
tention of  such  parts  in  a  rudimentary  and  useless  condi- 
tion is  intellig'ible  on  the  theory  of  descent.  It  can  be  shown 
that  modifications  of  structure  are  generally  inherited  by  the 
offspring  at  the  same  age  at  which  each  successive  variation 
appeared  in  the  parents;  it  can  further  be  shown  that  vari- 
ations do  not  commonly  supervene  at  a  very  early  period  of 
embryonic  growth,  and  on  these  two  principles  we  can  un- 
derstand that  most  wonderful  fact  in  the  whole  circuit  of 
natural  history,  namely,  the  close  similarity  of  the  embryos 
within  the  same  great  class — for  instance,  those  of  mammals, 
birds,  reptiles,  and  fish. 

It  is  the  consideration  and  explanation  of  such  facts  as 
these  which  has  convinced  me  that  the  theory  of  descent 
with  modification  by  means  of  natural  selection  is  in  the 
main  true.  These  facts  have  as  yet  received  no  explanation 
on  the  theory  of  independent  Creation;  they  cannot  be 
grouped  together  under  one  point  of  view,  but  each  has  to 
be  considered  as  an  ultimate  fact.  As  the  first  origin  of  life 
on  this  earth,  as  well  as  the  continued  life  of  each  individual, 
is  at  present  quite  beyond  the  scope  of  science,  I  do  not  wish 
to  lay  much  stress  on  the  greater  simplicity  of  the  view  of  a 
iew  forms  or  of  only  one  form  having  been  originally  cre- 
ated, instead  of  innumerable  miraculous  creations  having 
been  necessary  at  innumerable  periods;  though  this  more 
simple  view  accords  well  with  Maupertuis's  philosophical 
axiom  of  "  least  action." 

In  considering  how  far  the  theory  of  natural  selection 
may  be  extended, — that  is,  in  determining  from  how  many 
progenitors  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  have  descended, — 
ive  may  conclude  that  at  least  all  the  micmbers  of  the  same 
class  have  descended  from  a  single  ancestor.  A  number  of 
organic  beings  are  included  in  the  same  class,  because  they 
present,  independently  of  their  habits  of  life,  the  same  funda- 
mental type  of  structure,  and  because  they  graduate  into  each 
other.  Moreover,  members  of  the  same  class  can  in  most 
cases  be  shown  to  be  closely  alike  at  an  early  embryonic  age. 
These  facts  can  be  explained  on  the  belief  of  their  descent 
from  a  common  form;  therefore  it  may  be  safely  admitted 


NATURAL  SELECTION". 


13 


that  all  the  members  of  the  same  class  are  descended  from 
one  progenitor.  But  as  the  members  of  quite  distinct  classes 
have  something  in  common  in  structure  and  much  in  com- 
mon in  constitution,  analogy  would  lead  us  one  step  further, 
and  to  infer  as  probable  that  all  living  creatures  are  descended 
from  a  single  prototype. 

I  hope  that  the  reader  will  pause  before  coming  to  any 
final  and  hostile  conclusion  on  the  theory  of  natural  selection. 
The  reader  may  consult  my  '  Origin  of  Species '  for  a  gen- 
eral sketch  of  the  whole  subject;  but  in  that  work  he  has  to 
take  many  statements  on  trust.  In  considering  the  theory 
of  natural  selection,  he  will  assuredly  meet  with  weighty 
difiiculties,  but  these  difficulties  relate  chiefly  to  subjects — 
such  as  the  degree  of  perfection  of  the  geological  record,  the 
means  of  distribution,  the  possibility  of  transitions  in  organs, 
(fee. — on  which  we  are  confessedly  ignorant;  nor  do  we  know 
how  ignorant  we  are.  If  we  are  much  more  ignorant  than 
is  generally  supposed,  most  of  these  ditHculties  wholly  dis- 
appear. Let  the  reader  reflect  on  the  difficulty  of  looking 
at  whole  classes  of  facts  from  a  new  point  of  view.  Let  him 
observe  how  slowly,  but  surely,  the  noble  views  of  Lyell  on 
the  gradual  changes  now  in  progress  on  the  earth's  surface 
have  been  accepted  as  sufficient  to  account  for  all  that  we  see 
in  its  past  history.  The  present  action  of  natural  selection 
may  seem  more  or  less  probable ;  but  I  believe  in  the  truth  of 
the  theory,  because  it  collects,  under  one  point  of  view,  and 
gives  a  rational  explanation  of,  many  apparently  independent 
classes  of  facts.* 


*  In  treating  the  several  sub- 
jects included  in  the  present  and 
my  other  works  I  have  continu- 
ally been  led  to  ask  for  informa- 
tion from  many  zoologists,  bota- 
nists, geologists,  breeders  of  ani- 
mals, and  horticulturists,  and  1 
have  invariably  received  from 
them  the  most  generous  assist- 
ance. Without  such  aid  I  could 
have  effected  little.  I  have  re- 
peatedly applied  for  information 
and  specimens  to  foreigners,  and 


to  British  merchants  and  officers 
of  the  Government  residing  in 
distant  lands,  and,  with  the  rar- 
est exceptions.  I  have  received 
prompt,  open-handed,  and  valu- 
able assistance.  I  cannot  express 
too  strongly  my  obligations  to  the 
many  persons  who  have  assisted 
me,  and  who,  I  am  convinced, 
would  be  equally  willing  to  assist 
others  in  any  scieutitic  investi- 
gation. 


14  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DOMESTIC   DOGS   AND   CATS. 

Ancient  varieties  of  the  dog — Resemblance  of  domestic  dogs  in  various 
countries  to  native  canine  species — Animals  not  acquainted  with  man 
at  first  fearless — Dogs  resembling  wolves  and  jackals — Habit  of  bark- 
ing acquired  and  lost — Feral  dogs — Tan-coloured  eye-spots — Period  of 
gestation — Offensive  odour — Fertility  of  the  races  when  crossed — Dif- 
ferences in  the  several  races  in  part  due  to  descent  from  distinct  spe- 
cies— Ditierences  in  the  skull  and  teeth — Difierences  in  the  body,  in 
constitution — Few  important  ditierences  have  been  fixed  by  selection 
— Direct  action  of  climate — Water-dogs  with  palmated  feet — History 
of  the  changes  which  certain  English  races  of  the  dog  have  gradually 
undergone  through  selection — Extinction  of  the  less  improved  sub- 
breeds. 

Cats,  crossed  with  several  species — Different  breeds  found  only  in  sepa- 
rated countries— Direct  eflects  of  the  conditions  of  life — Feral  cats — 
Individual  variability. 

The  first  and  chief  point  of  interest  in  this  chapter  is, 
whether  the  numerous  domesticated  varieties  of  the  dog  have 
descended  from  a  single  wild  species,  or  from  several.  Some 
authors  believe  that  all  have  descended  from  the  wolf,  or  from 
the  jackal,  or  from  an  unknown  and  extinct  species.  Others 
again  believe,  and  this  of  late  has  been  the  favourite  tenet, 
that  they  have  descended  from  several  species,  extinct  and  re- 
cent, more  or  less  commingled  together.  We  shall  probably 
never  be  able  to  ascertain  their  origin  with  certaintj^  Pa- 
laeontology ^  does  not  throw  much  light  on  the  question,  ow- 
ing, on  the  one  hand,  to  the  close  similarity  of  the  skulls  of 
extinct  as  well  as  living  Avolves  and  jackals,  and  owing,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  the  great  dissimilarity  of  the  skulls  of 
the  several  breeds  of  the  domestic  dogs.  It  seems,  however, 
that  remains  have  been  found  in  the  later  tertiary  deposits 

1  Owen,    '  British   Fossil    Mam-  habits.      See  also   Boyd   Dawkins, 

mals,'    pp.    123    to    133.      Pictet's  '  Cave  Hunting,"  1874,  p.  131,  tV:e., 

*  Traite  de  Pal.,'   18.j3,   torn.   i.   p.  and  his  other  publications.     Jeit- 

202.     De  Blainville,  in  his  '  Osteo-  teles  has  discussed  in  great  detail 

graphic,     Canidae,'     p.     142,     has  the    character    of    the    breeds    of 

largely   discussed  the   whole   sub-  prehistoric     dogs:      '  Die     vorge- 

ject,   and   concludes   that   the  ex-  sehichtlichen      Alterthiimer      der 

tinct    parent   of   all   domesticated  Stadt  Olmlitz,'  II.  Thiel,  1872,  p. 

dogs  came  nearest  to  the  wolf  in  44  to  end. 
organization,  and  to  the  jackal  in 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


15 


more  like  those  of  a  large  dog  than  of  a  wolf,  which  favours 
the  belief  of  De  Blainville  that  our  dogs  are  the  descendants 
of  a  single  extinct  species.  On  the  other  hand,  some  authors 
go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  every  chief  domestic  breed  must 
have  had  its  wild  prototype.  This  latter  view  is  extremely 
improbable:  it  allows  nothing  for  variation;  it  passes  over 
the  almost  monstrous  character  of  some  of  the  breeds;  and  it 
almost  necessarily  assumes  that  a  large  number  of  species  have 
become  extinct  since  man  domesticated  the  dog;  whereas  we 
l^lainly  see  that  wild  members  of  the  dog-family  are  extir- 
pated by  human  agency  with  much  difficulty;  even  so  recent- 
Iv  as  1710  the  wolf  existed  in  so  small  an  island  as  Ireland. 

The  reasons  which  have  led  various  authors  to  f^inf  er  that 
our  dogsTiave  descended  from  more  than  one  wild  species  are 
as  follows.'  Firstly,  the  great  difference  between  the  several 
breeds;  but  this  will  appear  of  comparatively  little  weight  after 
we  shall  have  seen  how^  great  are  the  diiferences  between  the 
several  races  of  various  domesticated  animals  which  certainly 
have  descended  from  a  single  parent-form.  Secondly,  the 
more  important  fact,  that,  at  the  most  anciently  known  histori- 
cal periods,  several  breeds  of  the  dog  existed,  very  unlike  each 
other,  and  closely  resembling  or  identical  with  breeds  still  alive. 

We  will  briefly  run  back  through  the  historical  records. 
The  materials  are  remarkably  deficient  between  the  four- 
teenth  century   and   the   Roman   classical   period.^     At   this 


2  Pallas,  I  believe,  originated 
this  doctrine  in  '  Act.  Acad.  St. 
Petersburgh,'  1780,  Part  ii.  Eh- 
renberg  has  advocated  it,  as  may 
be  seen  in  De  Blainville's  '  OSteo- 
graphie,'  p.  79.  It  has  been  car- 
ried to  an  extreme  extent  by  Col. 
Hamilton  Smith  in  the  '  Natural- 
ist Library,'  vols.  ix.  and  x.  Mr. 
W.  C.  Martin  adopts  it  in  his 
excellent  '  History  of  the  Dog,' 
1845;  as  does  Dr.  Morton,  as  well 
as  Nott  and  Gliddon.  in  the 
United  States.  Prof.  Low,  in  his 
'  Domesticated  Animals.'  184.5.  p. 
660,  'comes  to  this  same  conclu- 
sion. No  one  has  argued  on  this 
side  with  more  clearness  and 
force  than  the  late  James  Wilson, 
of  Edinlmi'gh,  in  various  papers 
read  before  the  Highland  Agricul- 
tural and  Wernerian  Societies. 
Isidore  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire 
('  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  1860,  tom,  iii. 


p.  107).  though  he  believes  that 
most  dogs  have  descended  from 
the  jackal,  yet  inclines  to  the  be- 
lief that  some  are  descended  from 
the  wolf.  Prof  Gervais  ('  Hist. 
Nat.  Mamm.'  1855.  tom.  ii.  p.  69, 
referring  to  the  view  that  all  the 
domestic  races  are  the  moditied 
descendants  of  a  single  species, 
after  a  long  discussion,  says, 
"  Cette  opinion  est.  suivant  nous 
du  moins.  la  moins  probable." 

=*  Berjeau,  '  The  Varieties  of 
the  Dog:  in  old  Sculptures  and 
Pictures.'  1863.  '  Der  Hund,'  von 
Dr.  F.  L.  Walther,  Giessen.  1817. 
s.  48:  this  author  seems  carefully 
to  have  studied  all  classical  works 
on  the  subject.  S^e  also  Volz. 
'  Eeitriige  zur  Kulturgeschichte.' 
Leipzig,"  18.52.  s.  115.  '  Youatt  on 
the  Dog.'  1845.  p.  6.  A  very  full 
history  is  given  by  De  Blainville 
in  his  '  Osteographie,  Canidse.' 


16  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

latter  period  various  breeds,  namely  hounds,  house-dogs,  lap- 
dogs,  (fcc,  existed;  but,  as  Dr.  Walther  has  remarked,  it  is 
impossible  to  recognise  the  greater  number  with  any  cer- 
tainty. Youatt,  however,  gives  a  drawing  of  a  beautiful 
sculpture  of  two  greyhound  puppies  from  the  Villa  of  An- 
toninus. On  an  Assyrian  monument,  about  640  B.  c,  an 
enormous  mastiff*  is  figured;  and  according  to  Sir  H.  Raw- 
linson  (as  I  was  informed  at  the  British  Museum),  similar 
dogs  are  still  imported  into  this  same  country.  I  have 
looked  through  the  magnificent  works  of  Lepsius  and  Rosel- 
lini,  and  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  from  the  fourth  to 
the  twelfth  dynasties  (i.  e.  from  about  3400  B.  c.  to  2100  b.  c.) 
several  varieties  of  the  dog  are  represented ;  most  of  them  are 
allied  to  greyhounds;  at  the  later  of  these  periods  a  dog 
resembling  a  hound  is  figured,  with  drooping  ears,  but  with 
a  longer  back  and  more  pointed  head  than  in  our  hounds. 
There  is,  also,  a  turnspit,  with  short  and  crooked  legs,  closely 
resembling  the  existing  variety;  but  this  kind  of  monstrosity 
is  so  common  with  various  animals,  as  with  the  ancon  sheep, 
and  even,  according  to  Rengger,  with  jaguars  in  Paraguay, 
that  it  would  be  rash  to  look  at  the  monumental  animal  as 
the  parent  of  all  our  turnspits :  Colonel  Sykes  ^  also  has  de- 
scribed an  Indian  pariah  dog  as  presenting  the  same  mon- 
strous character.  The  most  ancient  dog  represented  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments  is  one  of  the  most  singular;  it  re- 
sembles a  greyhound,  but  has  long  pointed  ears  and  a  short 
curled  tail:  a  closely  allied  variety  still  exists  in  Northern 
Africa ;  for  Mr.  E.  Vernon  Harcourt '"  states  that  the  Arab 
boar-hound  is  "  an  eccentric  hieroglyphic  animal,  such  as 
Cheops  once  hunted  with,  somewhat  resembling  the  rough 
Scotch  deer-hound ;  their  tails  are  curled  tight  round  on  their 
backs,  and  their  ears  stick  out  at  right  angles."  With  this 
most  ancient  variety  a  pariah-like  dog  coexisted. 

We  thus  see  that,  at  a  period  between  four  and  five  thou- 

♦  I  have  seen  drawinsrs  of  this  familiar  with  the  so-called  Thibet 

doR  from  the  tomb  of  the  son  of  mastiff,    and    has    examined    the 

Esar  Haddon.  and  clay  models  in  drawings  in  the  British  Musenm, 

the    British    Musenm.      Nott    and  informs     me     that     he     considers 

Gliddon.  in  their  '  Types  of  Man-  them  different. 

kind,'  1854.  p.  393.  srive  a  copy  of  ^  '  proc.      Zoolog.      Soc.,'     July 

these    drawings.      This    doc:    has  12th,  1831. 

been    called   a    Thibetan    mastiff,  *  *  Sporting  in  Algeria,'  p.  51. 

but    Mr.    H.    A.    Oldfleld,    who    is 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


IT 


sand  years  ago,  various  breeds,  viz,  pariah  dogs,  greyhounds, 
common  hounds,  mastiffs,  house-dogs,  lapdogs,  and  turnspits, 
existed,  more  or  less  closely  resembling  our  present  breeds. 
But  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  that  any  of  these  ancient 
dogs  belonged  to  the  same  identical  sub-varieties  with  our 
present  dogs.  As  long  as  man  was  believed  to  have  existed 
on  this  earth  only  about  6000  years,  this  fact  of  the  great 
diversity  of  the  breeds  at  so  early  a  period  was  an  argument 
of  much  weight  that  they  had  proceeded  from  several  wild 
sources,  for  there  would  not  have  been  sufficient  time  for  their 
divergence  and  modification.  But  now  that  we  know,  from 
the  discovery  of  flint  tools  embedded  with  the  remains  of 
extinct  animals  in  districts  which  have  since  undergone  great 
geographical  changes,  that  man  has  existed  for  an  incom- 
parably longer  period,  and  bearing  in  mind  that  the  most 
barbarous  nations  possess  domestic  dogs,  the  argument  from 
insufficient  time  falls  away  greatly  in  value. 

Long  before  the  period  of  any  historical  record  the  dog  was 
domesticated  in  Europe.  In  the  Danish  Middens  of  the  Neo- 
lithic or  Newer  Stone  period,  bones  of  a  canine  animal  are 
imbedded,  and  Steenstrup  ingeniously  argues  that  these  be- 
longed to  a  domestic  dog;  for  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
bones  of  birds  preserved  in  the  refuse  consists  of  long  bones, 
which  it  was  found  on  trial  dogs  cannot  devour.**  This  an- 
cient dog  was  succeeded  in  Denmark  during  the  Bronze  pe- 
riod by  a  larger  kind,  presenting  certain  differences,  and  this 
again  during  the  Iron  period,  by  a  still  larger  kind.  In 
Switzerland,  we  hear  from  Prof.  Riitimeyer,''  that  during  the 
Neolithic  period  a  domesticated  dog  of  middle  size  existed, 
which  in  its  skull  was  about  equally  remote  from  the  wolf 
and  jackal,  and  partook  of  the  characters  of  our  hounds  and 
setters   or   spaniels    (Jagdhund   und   Wachtelhund).      Riiti- 

■^  Berjean  gives  fac-similes  of 
the  Egyptian  drawings.  Mr.  C. 
L.  Martin  in  liis  '  History  of  the 
Dog,'  1845,  copies  several  figures 
from  the  Egyptian  monuments, 
and  spealvs  witli  mucla  confidence 
with  respect  to  their  identity 
with  still  living  dogs.  Messrs. 
Nott  and  Gliddon  ('  Tvpes  of 
Mankind,'  1854,  p.  388)  give  still 
more  numerous  figures.  Mr.  Glid- 
don asserts  that  a  curl-tailed 
greyhound,   like  that  represented 


on  tlie  most  ancient  monuments, 
is  common  in  Borneo;  l)ut  the 
Rajah,  Sir  J.  Brooke,  informs  me 
tliat  no  such  dog  exists  there. 

^  These,  and  the  following  facts 
on  the  Danish  remains,  are  taken 
from  M.  Morlot's  most  interesting 
memoir  in  '  Soc.  Vaudoise  des  So. 
Nat.'  torn,  vi.,  1860,  pp.  281,  299, 
320. 

®  '  Die  Fauna  der  Pfahlbauten,' 
1861,  s.  117,  162. 


18  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

meyer  insists  strongly  on  the  constancy  of  form,  during-  a 
Tery  long  period  of  time  of  this  the  most  ancient  known  dog. 
During  the  Bronze  period  a  larger  dog  appeared,  and  this 
closely  resembled  in  its  jaw  a  dog  of  the  same  age  in  Den- 
mark. Remains  of  two  notably  distinct  varieties  of  the  dog 
"were  found  by  Schmerling  in  a  cave ;  "  but  their  age  cannot 
he  positively  determined. 

The  existence  of  a  single  race,  remarkably  constant  in 
form  during  the  whole  ilv'eolithic  period,  is  an  interesting  fact 
in  contrast  with  what  we  see  of  the  changes  which  the  races 
underAvent  during  the  period  of  the  successive  Egyptian 
monuments,  and  in  contrast  with  our  existing  dogs.  The 
character  of  this  animal  during  the  Xeolithic  period,  as  given 
by  Riitimeyer,  supports  De  Blainville's  view  that  our  varie- 
ties have  descended  from  an  unknown  and  extinct  form.  But 
we  should  not  forget  that  we  know  nothing  with  respect  to 
the  antiquity  of  man  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  The 
succession  of  the  different  kinds  of  dogs  in  Switzerland  and 
Denmark  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the  immigration  of  conquer- 
ing tribes  bringing  with  them  their  dogs ;  and  this  view 
accords  with  the  belief  that  different  wild  canine  animals 
were  domesticated  in  different  regions.  Independently  of 
the  immigration  of  new  races  of  man,  we  know  from  the 
wide-spread  presence  of  bronze,  composed  of  an  alloy  of  tin, 
how  much  commerce  there  must  have  been  throughout  Eu- 
rope at  an  extremely  remote  period,  and  dogs  would  then 
probably  have  been  bartered.  At  the  present  time,  amongst 
the  savages  of  the  interior  of  Guiana,  the  Taruma  Indians 
are  considered  the  best  trainers  of  dogs,  and  possess  a  large 
hreed  which  they  barter  at  a  high  price  with  other  tribes." 

The  main  argument  in  favour  of  the  several  breeds  of  the 
dog  being  the  descendants  of  distinct  wild  stocks,  is  their 
resemblance  in  various  countries  to  distinct  species  still  ex- 
isting there.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the  com- 
parison between  the  wild  and  domesticated  animals  has  been 
made  but  in  few  cases  with  sufficient  exactness.  Before  en- 
tering on  details,  it  will  be  well  to  show  that  there  is  no 
a  priori  difficulty  in  the  belief  that  several  canine  species 

"  De  Blainville,  '  Ost^ographie.        nie  information  on  this  head.     See 
Caniflpp."  also     *  Journal    of    R.     Geograph. 

11  Sir  R.  Schomburcrk  has  given        See.,'  vol.  xiii.,  1843,  p.  65. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  19 

have  been  domesticated.  Members  of  the  dog  family  in- 
habit nearly  the  whole  world ;  and  several  species  agree  pretty 
closely  in  habits  and  structure  with  our  several  domesticated 
dogs.  Mr.  Galton  has  shown "  how  fond  savages  are  of 
keeping  and  taming  animals  of  all  kinds.  Social  animals 
are  the  most  easily  subjugated  by  man,  and  several  species  of 
Canidse  hunt  in  packs.  It  deserves  notice,^  as.  b£aring_  on 
other  animals  as  well  as  on  the  dog,  that  at  an  extremely 
ancient  period,  when  man  first  entered  any  country,  the  ani- 
mals living  there  would  have  felt  no  instinctive  or  inher- 
ited fear  of  him,  and  would  consequently  have  been  tamed 
far  more  easily  than  at  present.  For  instance,  when  the 
Falkland  Islands  were  first  visited  by  man,  the  large  wolf- 
like dog  (Canis  antarcticus)  fearlessly  came  to  meet  Byron's 
sailors,  who,  mistaking  this  ignorant  curiosity  for  ferocity, 
ran  into  the  water  to  avoid  them :  even  recently  a  man,  by 
holding  a  piece  of  meat  in  one  hand  and  a  knife  in  the  other, 
could  sometimes  stick  them  at  night.  On  an  island  in  the 
Sea  of  Aral,  when  first  discovered  by  Butakoff,  the  saigak 
antelopes,  which  are  "  generally  very  timid  and  watchful, 
did  not  fly  from  us,  but  on  the  contrary  looked  at  us  with 
a  sort  of  curiosity."  So,  again,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mauri- 
tius, the  manatee  was  not  at  first  in  the  least  afraid  of  man, 
and  thus  it  has  been  in  several  quarters  of  the  world  with 
seals  and  the  morse.  I  have  elsewhere  shown  "  how  slowly 
the  native  birds  of  several  islands  have  acquired  and  in- 
herited a  salutary  dread  of  man:  at  the  Galapagos  Archi- 
pelago I  pushed  with  the  muzzle  of  my  gun  hawks  from  a 
branch,  and  held  out  a  pitcher  of  water  for  other  birds  to 
alight  on  and  drink.  Quadrupeds  and  birds  which  have  sel- 
dom been  disturbed  by  man,  dread  him  no  more  than  do 
our  English  birds,  the  cows,  or  horses  grazing  in  the  fields. 
It  is  a  more  important  consideration  that  several  canine 
species  evince  (as  will  be  shown  in  a  future  chapter)  no 
strong  repugnance  or  inability  to  breed  under  confinement; 
and  the  incapacity  to  breed  under  confinement  is  one  of  the 
commonest  bars  to   domestication.     Lastly,  savages  set  the 

^-  '  Domestication  of   Animnls.'  Canis  antarcticuf!,  see  p.  108.     For 

Ethnological  Soc,  Dec.  22n(:l.  ISGS.  the    case    of    the    antelope,     see 

'^^  '  Journal  of  Researches,'  &c..  '  Journal   Royal   Geograph.   Soc.,' 

1845,    p.    393.     With    respect    to  vol.  xxiii.  p.  94. 

3 


20  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

highest  value,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapter  on  Selection,  on 
dogs :  even  half-tamed  animals  are  highly  useful  to  them : 
the  Indians  of  North  America  cross  their  half -wild  dogs  with 
wolves,  and  thus  render  them  even  wilder  than  before,  but 
bolder:  the  savages  of  Guiana  catch  and  partially  tame  and 
use  the  M'helps  of  two  wild  species  of  Cants,  as  do  the  sav- 
ages of  Australia  those  of  the  wild  Dingo.  Mr.  Philip  King 
informs  me  that  he  once  trained  a  wild  Dingo  puppy  to  drive 
cattle,  and  found  it  very  useful.  From  these  several  con- 
siderations we  see  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  believing  that 
man  might  have  domesticated  various  canine  species  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  It  would  indeed  have  been  a  strange  fact 
if  one  species  alone  had  been  domesticated  throughout  the 
world. 

We  will  now  enter  into  details.  The  accurate  and  saga- 
cious Richardson  says,  "  The  resemblance  between  the  ISTorth- 
ern  American  wolves  (Canis  lupus,  var.  occidentaUs)  and  the 
domestic  dogs  of  the  Indians  is  so  great  that  the  size  and 
strength  of  the  wolf  seems  to  be  the  only  difference.  I  have 
more  than  once  mistaken  a  band  of  wolves  for  the  dogs  of 
a  party  of  Indians;  and  the  howl  of  the  animals  of  both 
species  is  prolonged  so  exactly  in  the  same  key  that  even  the 
practised  ear  of  the  Indian  fails  at  times  to  discriminate 
them."  He  adds  that  the  more  northern  Esquimaux  dogs  are 
not  only  extremely  like  the  grey  wolves  of  the  Arctic  circle 
in  form  and  colour,  but  also  nearly  equal  them  in  size.  Dr. 
Kane  has  often  seen  in  his  teams  of  sledge-dogs  the  oblique 
eye  (a  character  on  Avhich  some  naturalists  lay  great  stress), 
the  drooping  tail,  and  scared  look  of  the  wolf.  In  disposi- 
tion the  Esquimaux  dogs  differ  little  from  wolves,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Hayes,  they  are  capable  of  no  attachment  to 
man,  and  are  so  savage  that  when  hungry  they  will  attack 
even  their  masters.  According  to  Kane  they  readily  become 
feral.  Their  affinity  is  so  close  with  wolves  that  they  fre- 
quently cross  with  them,  and  the  Indians  take  the  whelps  of 
wolves  "  to  improve  the  breed  of  their  dogs."  The  half- 
bred  wolves  sometimes  (Lamare-Picquot)  cannot  be  tamed 
"  though  this  case  is  rare ;  "  but  they  do  not  become  thor- 
oughly well  broken  in  till  the  second  or  third  generation. 
These  facts  show  that  there  can  be  but  little,  if  any,  sterility 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


21 


between  the  Esquimaux  dog  and  the  wolf,  for  otherwise  they 
would  not  be  used  to  improve  the  breed.  As  Dr.  Hayes  says 
of  these  dogs,  "  reclaimed  wolves  they  doubtless  are."  '* 

North  America  is  inhabited  by  a  second  kind  of  wolf,  the 
prairie-wolf  (Canis  latrans),  which  is  now  looked  at  by  all 
naturalists  as  specifically  distinct  from  the  common  wolf; 
and  is,  according  to  Mr.  J.  K.  Lord,  in  some  respects  inter- 
mediate in  habits  between  a  wolf  and  a  fox.  Sir  J.  Richard- 
son, after  describing  the  Hare  Indian  dog,  which  differs  in 
many  respects  from  the  Esquimaux  dog,  says,  "  It  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  prairie-wolf  that  the  Esquimaux  dog 
does  to  the  great  grey  wolf."  He  could,  in  fact,  detect  no 
marked  difference  between  them;  and  Messrs.  Nott  and  Glid- 
don  give  additional  details  showing  their  close  resemblance. 
The  dogs  derived  from  the  above  two  aboriginal  sources  cross 
together  and  with  the  wild  wolves,  at  least  with  the  C.  occi- 
dentalis,  and  with  European  dogs.  In  Florida,  according  to 
Bartram,  the  black  wolf-dog  of  the  Indians  differs  in  nothing 
from  the  wolves  of  that  country  except  in  barking." 

Turning  to  the  southern  parts  of  the  new  world,  Columbus 
found  two  kinds  of  dogs  in  the  West  Indies ;  and  Fernandez  ^"^ 
describes  three  in  Mexico:  some  of  these  native  dogs  were 
dumb — that  is,  did  not  bark.  In  Guiana  it  has  been  known 
since  the  time  of  Buffon  that  the  natives  cross  their  dogs 
with  an  aboriginal  species,  apparently  the  Canis  cancrivorus. 


1*  The  authorities  for  the  fore- 
going statements  are  as  follows: 
—Richardson,  in  '  Fauna  Boreali- 
Americana,'  1829,  pp.  64.  75;  Dr. 
Kane,  'Arctic  Explorations,'  1856, 
vol.  i.  pp.  398,  4.55;  Dr.  Hayes, 
'  Arctic  Boat  Journey,'  1860,  p. 
167.  Franklin's  '  Narrative,'  vol. 
i.  p.  269,  gives  the  case  of  three 
whelps  of  a  black  wolf  being  car- 
ried away  by  the  Indians.  Parry, 
Richardson,  and  others,  give  ac- 
counts of  wolves  and  dogs  natu- 
rally crossing  in  the  eastern  parts 
of  North  America.  Seenian,  in 
his  '  Vovage  of  H.M.S.  Herald,' 
1853,  vol.  ii.  p.  26,  says  the  wolf 
is  often  caught  by  the  Esquimaux 
for  the  purpose  of  crossing  with 
their  dogs,  and  thus  adding  to 
their  size  and  strength.  M.  La- 
mare-Picquot,  in  *  Bull,  de  la  Soc. 
d'Acclimat.'  torn,  vii.,  1860,  p.  148, 


gives  a  good  account  of  the  half- 
bred  Esquimaux  dogs. 

1=  '  Fauna  Boreali-Americana,' 
1829,  pp.  73,  78,  80.  Nott  and 
Gliddon,  '  Tvpes  of  Mankind.'  p. 
383.  The  naturalist  and  traveller 
Bertram  is  quoted  by  Hamilton 
Smith,  in  '  Naturalist  Lib.,'  vol. 
X.  p.  1.56.  A  Mexican  domestic 
dog  seems  also  to  resemble  a  wild 
dog  of  the  same  country;  but  this 
may  be  the  prairie-wolf.  Anotlier 
capable  judge,  Mr.  J.  K.  Lord 
('  The  Naturalist  in  Vancouver 
Lsland,'  1866,  vol.  ii.  p.  218),  sa.vs 
that  the  Indian  dog  of  the  Spo- 
kans,  near  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
"  is  beyond  all  question  nothing 
more  than  a  tamed  Cayote  or 
prairie-wolf,"    or   Catiis   la  trans. 

1"  I  quote  this  from  Mr.  R. 
Hill's  excellent  account  of  the 
Alco  or  domestic  dog  of  Mexico, 


22  DOG^.  Chap.  I. 

Sir  E.  Schomburgk,  who  has  so  carefully  explored  these 
regions,  writes  to  me,  "  I  have  been  repeatedly  told  by  the 
Arawaak  Indians,  who  reside  near  the  coast,  that  they  cross 
their  dog's  with  a  wild  species  to  improve  the  breed,  and 
individual  dogs  have  been  shown  to  me  which  certainly 
resembled  the  C.  cancrivorus  much  more  than  the  common 
breed.  It  is  but  seldom  that  the  Indians  keep  the  C.  cancri- 
vorus for  domestic  purposes,  nor  is  the  Ai,  another  species 
of  wild  dog,  and  which  I  consider  to  be  identical  with  the 
Dusicyon  silvestris  of  H.  Smith,  now  much  used  by  the  Are- 
cunas  for  the  purpose  of  hunting.  The  dogs  of  the  Taruma 
Indians  are  quite  distinct,  and  resemble  Buffon's  St.  Do- 
mingo greyhound.-'  It  thus  appears  that  the  natives  of  Gui- 
ana have  partially  domesticated  two  aboriginal  species,  and 
still  cross  their  dogs  with  them ;  these  two  species  belong  to  a 
quite  different  type  from  the  ISTorth  American  and  European 
wolves.  A  careful  observer,  Rengger,^'  gives  reasons  for  be- 
lieving that  a  hairless  dog  was  domesticated  when  America 
was  first  visited  by  Europeans :  some  of  these  dogs  in  Para- 
guay are  still  dumb,  and  Tschudi  ^^  states  that  they  suffer 
from  cold  in  the  Cordillera.  This  naked  dog  is,  however, 
quite  distinct  from  that  found  preserved  in  the  ancient  Peru- 
vian burial-places,  and  described  by  Tschudi,  under  the  name 
of  Canis  inga',  as  withstanding  cold  well  and  as  barking.  It 
it  not  known  whether  these  two  distinct  kinds  of  dog  are  the 
descendants  of  native  species,  and  it  might  be  argued  that 
"when  man  first  migrated  into  America  he  brought  with  him 
from  the  Asiatic  continent  dogs  which  had  not  learned  to 
bark;  but  this  view  does  not  seem  probable,  as  the  natives 
along  the  line  of  their  march  from  the  north  reclaimed,  as 
we  have  seen,  at  least  two  I^.  American  species  of  Canidae. 

Turning  to  the  Old  World,  some  European  dogs  closely 
resemble  the  wolf;  thus  the  shepherd  dog  of  the  plains  of 
Hungary  is  white  or  reddish-brown,  has  a  sharp  nose,  short, 
erect  ears,  shaggy  coat,  and  bushy  tail,  and  so  much  resembles 
a  wolf  that  Mr.  Paget,  who  gives  this  description,  says  he  has 
known  a  Hungarian  mistake  a  wolf  for  one  of  his  own  dogs. 

in   Gosse's   '  Naturalist's   Sojourn  ^^  Quoted   in   Humboldt's    '  As- 

in  Jamaica.'  l.Sol.  p.  329.  pects    of    Nature  '    (Eng.    trans,), 

^^  '  Naturffeschicnte  der  Sauge-  vol.  i.  p.  108. 
thiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830,  s.  151. 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


2? 


Jeitteles,  also,  remarks  on  the  close  similarity  of  the  Hunga- 
rian dog  and  wolf.  Shepherd  dogs  in  Italy  must  anciently 
have  closely  resembled  wolves,  for  Columella  (vii.  12)  advises 
that  white  dogs  be  kept,  adding,  "  pastor  album  probat,  ne  pro 
lupo  canem  feriat."  Several  accounts  have  been  given  of 
dogs  and  wolves  crossing  naturally;  and  Pliny  asserts  that 
the  Gauls  tied  their  female  dogs  in  the  woods  that  they  might 
cross  with  wolves.  The  European  wolf  differs  slightly  from 
that  of  North  America,  and  has  been  ranked  by  many  natu- 
ralists as  a  distinct  species.  The  common  wolf  of  India  is 
also  by  some  esteemed  as  a  third  species,  and  here  again  we 
find  a  marked  resemblance  between  the  pariah  dogs  of  certain 
districts  of  India  and  the  Indian  wolf."" 

With  respect  to  Jackals,  Isidore  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire  ^ 
says  that  not  one  constant  difference  can  be  pointed  out  be- 
tween their  structure  and  that  of  the  smaller  races  of  dogs. 
They  agree  closely  in  habits:  jackals,  when  tamed  and  called 
by  their  master,  wag  their  tails,  lick  his  hands,  crouch,  and 
throw  themselves  on  their  backs;  they  smell  at  the  tails  of 
other  dogs,  and  void  their  urine  sideways;  they  roll  on  car- 
rion or  on  animals  which  they  have  killed;  and,  lastl5%  when 
in  high  spirits,  they  run  round  in  circles  or  in  a  figure  of 
eight7with  their  tails  between  their  legs."  A  number  of  ex- 
cellent naturalists,  from  the  time  of  Giildenstadt  to  that  of 
Ehrenberg,  Hemprich,  and  Cretzschmar,  have  expressed  them- 
selves in  the  strongest  terms  with  respect  to  the  resemblance 
of  the  half -domestic   dogs   of   Asia   and   Egypt  to  jackals. 


19  Paget's  '  Travels  in  Hungary 
and  Transylvania,'  vol.  i.  p.  501. 
Jeitteles,  '  Fauna  Hungariae  Su- 
perioris,'  1862,  s.  13.  See  Pliny, 
'  Hist  of  the  World  '  (Eng. 
transl.),  8th  book.  ch.  xl.,  about 
the  Gauls  crossing  their  dogs. 
See  also  Aristotle,  '  Hist.  Animal.' 
lib.  viii.  e.  28.  For  good  evidence 
about  wolves  and  dogs  naturally 
crossing  near  the  Pyrenees,  s^e 
M.  Mauduyt,  '  Du  Loup  et  de  ses 
Races,'  Poitiers,  1851:  also  Pallas, 
In  '  Acta  Acad.  St.  Petersburgh,' 
1780,  part  ii.  p.  94. 

-*•  I  give  this  on  excellent  au- 
thority, namely.  Mr.  Blyth  (under 
the  signature  of  Zoophilus),  in  the 
'  Indian  Sporting  Review,'  Oct.. 
1856,    p.    134.      Mr.    Blyth    states 


that  he  was  struck  with  the  re- 
semblance between  a  brush-tailed 
race  of  pariah-dogs,  north-west  of 
Cawnpore,  and  the  Indiau  wolf. 
He  gives  corroborative  evidence 
with  respect  to  the  dogs  of  the 
valley  of  the  Nerbudda. 

-'  For  numerous  and  interest- 
ing details  on  the  resemblance  of 
dogs  and  jackals,  see  Isid.  Geof- 
frov  St.-Hilaire,  'Hist.  Nat.G^n.,' 
1860,  torn.  iii.  p.  101.  See  also 
'  Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammiferes.'  par 
Prof.  Gervais,  18.5.5,  torn.  ii.  p.  60. 

2-;  Also  Giildenstadt.  '  Nov. 
Comment.  Acad.  Petrop..'  torn. 
XX.,  pro  anno  1775,  p.  449.  Also 
Salvin,  in  '  Land  and  Water,'  Oct. 
1869. 


24 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I. 


M.  JSTordmann,  for  instance,  says,  "  Les  chiens  d'Awhaise  res- 
semblent  etonnammej^t  a  des  chacals."  Ehrenberg  '^  asserts 
that  the  domestic  do^of  ^wer  Egypt,  and  certain  mummied 
dogs,  have  for  theiiljK'iMJtype  a  species  of  wolf  (C  lupaster) 
of  the  country;  ^i^e^^s  the  domestic  dogs  of  Nubia  and 
certain  other  ra^mini^  dogs  have  the  closest  relation  to  a 
wild  species  OM^e  ^me  country,  viz.  C.  sahhar,  which  is  only 
a  form  of  ^jp^  cCymon  jackal.  Pallas  asserts  that  jackals 
and  dogs  sJH|e|4njes  naturally  cross  in  the  East;  and  a  case 
is  on  reco:^  m  jflgeria.'*  The  greater  number  of  naturalists 
divide  the  ja^»Lls  of  Asia  and  Africa  into  several  species,  but 
some  few  rank  them  all  as  one. 

I  may  add  that  the  domestic  dogs  on  the  coast  of  Guinea 
are  fox-like  animals,  and  are  dumb.''  On  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  between  lat.  4°  and  6°  south,  and  about  ten  days' 
journey  in  the  interior,  a  semi-domestic  dog,  as  the  Rev.  S. 
Erkhardt  informs  me,  is  kept,  which  the  natives  assert  is  de- 
rived from  a  similar  wild  animal.  Lichtenstein ""  says  that 
the  dogs  of  the  Bosjemans  present  a  striking  resemblance  even 
in  colour  (excepting  the  black  stripe  down  the  back)  with  the 
C.  mesomelas  of  South  Africa.  Mr.  E.  Layard  informs  me 
that  he  has  seen  a  Caffre  dog  which  closely  resembled  an  Es- 
quimaux dog.  In  Australia  the  Dingo  is  both  domesticated 
and  wild;  though  this  animal  may  have  been  introduced 
aboriginally  by  man,  yet  it  must  be  considered  as  almost  an 
endemic  form,  for  its  remains  have  been  found  in  a  similar 
state  of  preservation  and  associatel  with  extinct  mammals,  so 
that  its  introduction  must  have  been  ancient.'' 

From  this  resemblance  of  the  half-domesticated  dogs  in 
several  countries  to  the  wild  species  still  living  there, — from 
the  facility  with  which  they  can  often  be  crossed  together, — 
from  even  half -tamed  animals  being  so  much  valued  by  sav- 


23  Quoted  by  De  Blainville  in 
,his  '  Osteographie,  Canidae,'  pp. 
79    98. 

'2*  See  Pallas,  in  '  Act.  Acad.  St. 
Petersburg!!,'  1780,  part  ii.  p.  91. 
For  Algeria,  see  Isid.  Geoffrey  St.- 
Hilaire.  '  Hist.  Nat.  G^n.,'  torn. 
iii.  p.  177.  In  both  countries  it 
is  the  male  jackal  which  pairs 
with  female  domestic  dogs. 

"  John  Barbut's  '  Description 
of  the  Coast  of  Guinea  in  1746.' 


26  '  Travels    in    South    Africa,' 
vol.  ii.  p.  272. 

-^  Selwyn,  Geology  of  Victoria; 


'  Journal    of    Geolog.     Soc. 


vol. 


xlv.,  1858,  p.  536,  and  vol.  xvi., 
1860,  p.  148:  and  Prof.  M'Coy.  in 
'  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.' 
(3rd  series),  vol.  ix.,  1862,  p.  147. 
The  Dingo  differs  from  the  dogs 
of  the  central  Polynesian  islands. 
Dieffenbach  remarks  ('  Travels,' 
vol.  ii.  p.  45)  that  the  native  New 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  25 

ages, — and  from  the  other  circumstances  previously  remarked 
on  which  favour  their  domestication,  it  is  highly  jjrobable 
that  the  domestic  dogs  of  the  world  are  descended  from  two 
well-defined  species  of  wolf  (viz.  C.  lupus  and  C.  latrans), 
and  from  two  or  three  other  doubtful  species  (namely,  the 
European,  Indian,  and  North  African  wolves)  ;  from  at  least 
one  or  two  South  American  canine  species;  from  several 
races  or  species  of  jackal;  and  perhaps  from  one  or  more  ex- 
tinct species.  Although  it  is  possible  or  even  probable  that 
domesticated  dogs,  introduced  into  any  country  and  bred 
there  for  many  generations,  might  acquire  some  of  the  char- 
acters proper  to  the  aboriginal  Canidse  of  the  country,  we  can 
hardly  thus  account  for  introduced  dogs  having  given  rise 
to  two  breeds  in  the  same  country,  resembling  two  of  its 
aboriginal  species,  as  in  the  above-given  cases  of  Guiana  and 
of  Xorth  America.^^ 

It  cannot  be  objected  to  the  view  of  several  canine  species 
having  been  anciently  domesticated,  that  these  animals  are 
tamed  with  difficulty:  facts  have  been  already  given  on  this 
head,  but  I  may  add  that  the  young  of  the  Canis  primwvus  of 
India  were  tamed  by  Mr.  Hodgson,'"  and  became  as  sensible 
of  caresses,  and  manifested  as  much  intelligence,  as  any 
sporting  dog  of  the  same  age.  There  is  not  much  difference, 
as  we  have  already  shown  and  shall  further  see,  in  habits 
between  the  domestic  dogs  of  the  North  American  Indians 
and  the  wolves  of  that  country,  or  between  the  Eastern  pariah 
dogs  and  jackals,  or  between  the  dogs  which  have  run  wild 
in  various  countries  and  the  several  natural  species  of  the 
family.  The  habit  of  barking,  however,  which  is  almost 
universal  with  domesticated  dogs,  forms  an  exception,  as  it 
does  not  characterise  a  single  natural  species  of  the  family, 
though  I  am  assured  that  the  Canis  latrans  of  North  America 
utters  a  noise  which  closely  approaches  a  bark.  But  this 
habit  is  soon  lost  by  dogs  when  they  become  feral  and  is  soon 

Zealand  dog  also  differs  from  the  1833.    p.    112.      Sre,    also,    on    the 

Diniro.  taming   of  the   common    wolf.    L. 

=«  These  latter  remarks  afford,  Lloyd,       '  Scandinavian       Adven- 

I    think,    a    sufficient    answer    to  tures,'  1S.^4,   vol.   i.   p.   400.     With 

some  criticisms   bv   Mr.    Wallace,  respect    to    the    .iackal.    f^re   Trof. 

on    the    multiple    briirin    of    dogs.  Gervais.  '  Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.'  torn, 

given    in    Lvell's    '  Principles    of  ii.    p.    61.      AVith    respect    to    the 

Geology.'  1872.  vol.   ii.  p.  29."i.  acruara    of    Paraguay,    see    Reng- 

29  .  Proceedings    Zoolog.     Soc.,'  ger's  work. 


26 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I. 


reacquired  when  they  are  again  domesticated.  The  case  of 
the  wild  dogs  on  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  having  become 
dumb  has  often  been  quoted,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  dumbness  ensued  in  the  course  of  thirty-three  years; 
on  the  other  hand,  dogs  taken  from  this  island  by  Ulloa 
slowly  reacquired  the  habit  of  barking.  The  Mackenzie- 
river  dogs,  of  the  Canis  latrans  type,  when  brought  to  Eng- 
land, never  learned  to  bark  properly;  but  one  born  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  ^^  "  made  his  voice  sound  as  loudly  as  any 
other  dog  of  the  same  age  and  size."  According  to  Professor 
Nillson,^'  a  wolf-whelp  reared  by  a  bitch  barks.  I.  Geoffroy 
Saint-TIilaire  exhibited  a  jackal  w^hich  barked  with  the  same 
tone  as  any  common  dog.''^  An  interesting  account  has  been 
given  by  Mr.  G.  Clarke  ^*  of  some  dogs  run  wild  on  Juan  de 
Nova,  in  the  Indian  Ocean ;  "  they  had  entirely  lost  the  fac- 
ulty of  barking;  they  had  no  inclination  for  the  company 
of  other  dogs,  nor  did  they  acquire  their  voice,"  during  a 
captivity  of  several  months.  On  the  island  they  "  congregate 
in  vast  packs,  and  catch  sea-birds  with  as  much  address  as 
foxes  could  display."  The  feral  dogs  of  La  Plata  have  not 
become  dumb ;  they  are  of  large  size,  hunt  singlj^  or  in  packs, 
and  burrow  holes  for  their  young.^^  In  these  habits  the  feral 
dogs  of  La  Plata  resemble  wolves  and  jackals;  both  of  which 
hunt  either  singly  or  in  packs,  and  burrow  holes.^'  These 
feral  dogs  have  not  become  uniform  in  colour  on  Juan  Fer- 
nandez, Juan  de  ISTova,  or  La  Plata.^^  In  Cuba  the  feral  dogs 
are  described  by  Poeppig  as  nearly  all  mouse-coloured,  with 
short  ears  and  light-blue  eyes.  In  St.  Domingo,  Col.  Ham. 
Smith  says^  that  the  feral  dogs  are  very  large,  like  grey- 


s^Roulin,  in  '  Mem.  present,  par 
divers  Savans,'   torn.   vi.   p.   341. 

31  Martin,  '  History  of  the 
Dog,'  p.  14. 

3-  Quoted  by  L.  Lloyd  in  '  Field 
Sports  of  North  of  Europe,'  vol. 
1.  p.  387. 

33  Quatrefages,  '  Soc.  d'Aecli- 
mat..'   May  11th.   1863.  p.   7. 

3*  '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat. 
Hist..'  vol.  XV.,  1845,  p.  140. 

35Azara,  'Voyages  dans  I'Amer. 
Merid..'  torn.  i.  p.  381:  his  account 
is  fully  confirmed  by  Rengger. 
Quatrefages  gives  an  account  of  a 
bitch  brouglit  from  Jerusalem  to 
France    which    burrowed    a    hole 


and  littered  in  it.  See  '  Discours, 
Exposition  des  Races  Canines,' 
18G5.  p.  3. 

3G  -svith  respect  to  wolves  bur- 
rowing holes,  see  Richardson, 
'  Fauna  Boreali- Americana,'  p. 
64;  and  Bechstein,  '  Naturge- 
schichte  Deutschlands,'  b.  i.  s. 
617. 

3"  See  Poeppig,  'Reise  in  Chile,' 
b.  i.  s.  290:  Mr.  G.  Clarke,  as 
above:  and  Rengger.   s.  155. 

3*  Dogs,  '  Nat.  Library,'  vol.  x. 
p.  121;  an  endemic  South  Ameri- 
can dog  seems  also  to  have  be- 
come feral  in  this  island.  See 
Gosse's  '  Jamaica,'  p.  340. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  27 

hounds,  of  a  uniform  pale  blue-ash,  with  small  ears,  and  large 
light-brown  eyes.  Even  the  wild  Dingo,  though  so  anciently 
naturalised  in  Australia,  "  varies  considerably  in  colour,"  as. 
I  am  informed  by  Mr.  P.  P.  King:  a  half-bred  Dingo  reared, 
in  England  ""*  showed  signs  of  wishing  to  burrow. 

From  the  several  foregoing  facts  we  see  that  reversion  in  the 
feral  state  gives  no  indication  of  the  colour  or  size  of  the  aborigi- 
nal parent-species.  One  fact,  however,  with  respect  to  the  colour- 
ing of  domestic  dogs,  I  at  one  time  hoped  might  have  thrown  some- 
liglit  on  their  origin;  and  it  is  worth  giving,  as  showing  how  coK 
ouring  follows  laAvs,  even  in  so  anciently  and  thoroughly  domes- 
ticated an  animal  as  the  dog.  Black  dogs  with  tan-coloured  feet,, 
whatever  breed  they  may  belong  to,  almost  invariably  have  a  tan- 
coloured  spot  on  the  upper  and  inner  corners  of  each  eye,  and  their 
lips  are  generally  thus  coloured.  I  have  seen  only  two  exceptions, 
to  this  rule,  namely,  in  a  spaniel  and  terrier.  Dogs  of  a  light- 
browai  colour  often  have  a  lighter,  yellowish-brown  spot  over  the: 
eyes;  sometimes  the  spot  is  white,  and  in  a  mongrel  terrier  the^ 
spot  was  black.  Mr.  Waring  kindly  examined  for  me  a  stud  of 
fifteen  greyhounds  in  Sufii'olk:  eleven  of  them  were  black,  or  black 
and  white,  or  brindled,  and  these  had  no  eye-spots;  but  three  werC' 
red  and  one  slaty-blue,  and  these  four  had  dark-coloured  spots, 
over  their  eyes.  Althougli  the  spots  thus  sometimes  differ  in  col- 
our, they  strongly  tend  to  be  tan-coloured;  this  is  proved  by  my 
having  seen  four  spaniels,  a  setter,  two  Yorkshire  shepherd  dogs„ 
a  large  mongrel,  and  some  fox-hounds,  coloured  black  and  white, 
with  not  a  trace  of  tan-colour,  excepting  the  spots  over  the  eyes, 
and  sometimes  a  little  on  the  feet.  These  latter  cases,  and  many 
others,  show  plainly  that  the  colour  of  the  feet  and  the  eye-spots. 
are  in  some  way  correlated.  I  have  noticed,  in  various  breeds,, 
every  gradation,  from  the  whole  face  being  tan-coloured,  to  a  com- 
plete ring  round  the  eyes,  to  a  minute  spot  over  the  inner  and 
upper  corners.  The  spots  occur  in  various  sub-breeds  of  terriers, 
and  spaniels;  in  setters;  in  hounds  of  various  kinds,  including 
the  turnspit-like  German  badger-hound;  in  shepherd  dogs;  in  a, 
mongrel,  of  which  neither  parent  had  the  spots;  in  one  pure  bull- 
dog, though  the  spots  were  in  this  case  almost  white ;  and  in  grey- 
hounds,—but  true  black-and-tan  greyhounds  are  excessively  rare; 
nevertheless  I  have  been  assured  by  Mr.  Warwick,  that  one  ran  at 
the  Caledonian  Champion  meeting  of  April,  1860,  and  was  "marked 
precisely  like  a  black-and-tan  terrier."  This  dog,  or  another  ex- 
actly the  same  colour,  ran  at  the  Scottish  National  Club  on  the 
21st  of  March,  1865;  and  I  hear  from  Mr.  C.  M.  Browne,  that 
"there  was  no  reason  either  on  the  sire  or  dam  side  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  this  unusual  colour."  Mr.  Swinhoe  at  my  request 
looked  at  the  dogs  in  China,  at  Amoy,  and  he  soon  noticed  a  brown 

3»  Low,  '  Domesticated  Animals,'  p.  650. 


;28  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

dog  with  yellow  spots  over  the  eyes.  Colonel  H.  Smith  *"  figures 
the  magnificent  black  mastilf  of  Thibet  with  a  tan-coloured  stripe 
•over  the  eyes,  feet,  and  chaps;  and  what  is  more  singular,  he  fig- 
ures the  Alco,  or  native  domestic  dog  of  Mexico,  as  black  and 
white,  with  narrow  tan-coloured  rings  round  the  eyes;  at  the  Ex- 
liibition  of  dogs  in  London,  May,  18(J3,  a  so-called  forest  dog  from 
North- West  Mexico  was  shown,  which  had  pale  tan-coloured  spots 
over  the  eyes.  The  occurrence  of  these  tan-coloured  spots  in  dogs 
of  such  extremely  different  breeds,  living  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  makes  the  fact  highly  remarkable. 

We  shall  hereafter  see,  especially  in  the  chapter  on  Pigeons, 
i:hat  coloured  marks  are  strongly  inherited,  and  that  they  often 
aid  us  in  discovering  the  primitive  foims  of  our  domestic  races. 
Hence,  if  any  wild  canine  species  had  distinctly  exhibited  the  tan- 
coloured  spots  over  the  eyes,  it  might  have  been  argued  that  this 
was  the  parent-form  of  nearly  all  our  domestic  races.  But  after 
looking  at  many  coloured  plates,  and  through  the  whole  collec- 
tion of  skins  in  the  British  Museum,  I  can  find  no  species  thus 
marked.  It  is  no  doubt  possible  that  some  extinct  species  was 
thus  coloured.  On  the  other  hand,  in  looking  at  the  various  spe- 
cies, there  seems  to  be  a  tolerably  plain  correlation  between  tan- 
coloured  legs  and  face;  and  less  frequently  between  black  legs  and 
:a  black  face;  and  this  general  rule  of  colouring  explains  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  the  above-given  cases  of  correlation  between  the  eye- 
spots  and  the  colour  of  the  feet.  Moreover,  some  jackals  and 
foxes  have  a  trace  of  a  white  ring  round  their  eyes,  as  in  C.  meso- 
melas,  C.  aureus,  and  (judging  from  Colonel  H."  Smith's  drawing) 
in  C.  alopex,  and  C.  thaleb.  Other  species  have  a  trace  of  a  black 
line  over  the  corners  of  the  eyes,  as  in  C  variegatus,  cinereo- 
rariegatiis,  and  fidvus,  and  the  wild  Dingo.  Hence  I  am  inclined 
to  conclude  that  a  tendency  for  tan-coloured  spots  to  appear  over 
the  eyes  in  the  various  breeds  of  dogs,  is  analogous  to  the  case 
■observed  by  Desmarest.  namely,  that  when  any  white  appears  on 
■a  dog  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  always  white,  "  de  maniere  a  rappeler  la 
tache  terminale  de  meme  couleur,  qui  caracterise  la  plupart  des 
Canides  sauvages."  *^  This  rule,  however,  as  I  am  assured  by  Mr. 
•Jesse,  does  not  invariably  hold  good. 

It  has  been  objected  that  our  domestic  dogs  cannot  be 
descended  from  wolves  or  jackals,  because  their  periods  of 
gestation  are  different.  The  supposed  difference  rests  on 
statements  made  by  Buff  on,  Gilibert,  Bechstein,  and  others; 
but  these  are  now  known  to  be  erroneous;  and  the  period  is 
found  to  agree  in  the  wolf,  jackal,  and  dog,  as  closely  as  could 
be  expected,  for  it  is  often  in  some  degree  variable."     Tessier, 

40  .  Tjjp      Naturalist      Library,'        '  Hist.   Nat.   Mamm.,'   torn.    11.   p. 
Dogs,  vol.  X.  pp.  4,  19.  66. 

"  Quoted     by     Prof.     Gervals,  « J.    Hunter    shows    that    the 


C!hap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


29 


who  has  closely  attended  to  this  subject,  allows  a  difference 
of  four  days  in  the  gestation  of  the  dog.  The  Rev.  W.  D. 
Fox  has  given  me  three  carefully  recorded  cases  of  retrievers, 
in  which  the  bitch  was  put  only  once  to  the  dog;  and  not 
counting  this  day,  but  counting  that  of  parturition,  the  pe- 
riods were  fifty-nine,  sixty-two,  and  sixty-seven  days.  The 
average  period  is  sixty-three  days;  but  Bellingeri  states  that 
this  applies  only  to  large  dogs;  and  that  for  small  races  it 
is  from  sixty  to  sixty-three  days;  Mr.  Eyton  of  Eyton,  who 
has  had  much  experience  with  dogs,  also  informs  mc  that  the 
time  is  apt  to  be  longer  with  large  than  with  small  dogs. 

F.  Cuvier  has  objected  that  the  jackal  would  not  have 
been  domesticated  on  account  of  its  offensive  smell;  but  sav- 
ages are  not  sensitive  in  this  respect.  The  degree  of  odour, 
also,  differs  in  the  different  kinds  of  jackal;"  and  Colonel 
H.  Smith  makes  a  sectional  division  of  the  group  with  one 
character  dependent  on  not  being  offensive.  On  the  other 
hand,  dogs — for  instance,  rough  and  smooth  terriers — differ 
much  in  this  respect ;  and  M.  Godron  states  that  the  hairless 
so-called  Turkish  dog  is  more  odoriferous  than  other  dogs. 
Isidore  Geoffroy  **  gave  to  a  dog  the  same  odour  as  that  from 
a  jackal  by  feeding  it  on  raw  flesh. 

The  belief  that  our  dogs  are  descended  from  wolves,  jack- 
als, South  American  Canidso,  and  other  species,  suggests  a 
far  more  important  difficulty.  These  animals  in  their  undo- 
mesticated  state,  judging  from  a  widely-spread  analogy, 
w^ould  have  been  in  some  degree  sterile  if  intercrossed;  and 
such  sterility  will  be  admitted  as  almost  certain  by  all  those 
who  believe  that  the  lessened  fertility  of  crossed  forms  is  an 


long  period  of  seventy-three  days 
given  by  Buffon  is  easily  ex- 
plained by  the  bitch  having  re- 
ceived the  dog  many  times  during 
a  period  of  sixteen  davs  ('  Phil. 
Transact.,'  1787,  p.  3.")3).  Hunter 
found  that  the  gestation  of  a 
mongrel  from  wolf  and  dog  ('  Phil. 
Transact..'  17S9,  p.  160)  appar- 
ently was  sixty-three  days,  for 
she  received  the  dog  more  than 
once.  The  period  of  a  mongrel 
dog  and  jackal  was  fifty-nine 
days.  Fred.  Cuvier  found  the  pe- 
riod of  gestation  of  the  wolf  to  be 
('  Diet.  Class.  d'Hist.  Nat.,'  torn, 
iv.  p.  S)  two  months  and  a  few 
days,  which  agrees  with  the  dog. 


Isid.  G.  St.-Hilaire,  who  has  dis- 
cussed the  whole  sul)ject,  and 
from  whom  I  quote  Bellingeri, 
states  ('  Hist.  Nat.  G6n.,'  tom.  iii. 
p.  112)  that  in  the  Jardin  dea 
Plantes  the  period  of  the  jackal 
has  been  found  to  be  from  sixty 
to  sixty-three  days,  exactly  as 
with  the  dog. 

"Sfce  Isid.  Geoffrov  St.-Hilalre, 
'  Hist.  Nat.  Gf-n.,'  tom.  iii.  p.  112. 
on  the  odour  of  jackals.  Col. 
Ham.  Smith,  in  '  Nat.  Lib.,'  vol. 
X.  p.  289. 

**  Quoted  by  Quatrefages  In 
'  Bull.  Soc.  d'Acclimat.,'  May 
11th,  1863. 


30  DOGS.  Chap.  L 

infallible  criterion  of  specific  distinctness.  Anyhow  these^ 
animals  keep  distinct  in  the  countries  which  they  inhabit  in^ 
common.  On  the  other  hand,  all  domestic  dogs,  which  are 
here  supposed  to  be  descended  from  several  distinct  species, 
are,  as  far  as  is  known,  mutually  fertile  together.  But,  as 
Broca  has  well  remarked,*''  the  fertility  of  successive  genera- 
tions of  mongrel  dogs  has  never  been  scrutinised  with  that 
care  which  is  thought  indispensable  when  species  are  crossed. 
The  few  facts  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  the  sexual  feel- 
ings and  reproductive  powers  differ  in  the  several  races  of 
the  dog  when  crossed  are  (passing  over  mere  size  as  render- 
ing propagation  difficult)  as  follows :  the  Mexican  Alco  *"  ap- 
parently dislikes  dogs  of  other  kinds,  but  this  perhaps  is  not 
strictly  a  sexual  feeling;  the  hairless  endemic  dog  of  Para- 
guay, according  to  Rengger,  mixes  less  with  the  European 
races  than  these  do  with  each  other;  the  Spitz  dog  in  Ger- 
many is  said  to  receive  the  fox  more  readily  than  do  other 
breeds;  and  Dr.  Hodgkin  states  that  a  female  Dingo  in  Eng- 
land attracted  the  male  wild  foxes.  If  these  latter  statements 
can  be  trusted,  they  prove  some  degree  of  sexual  difference 
in  the  breeds  of  the  dog.  But  the  fact  remains  that  our  do- 
mestic dogs,  differing  so  widely  as  they  do  in  external  struc- 
ture, are  far  more  fertile  together  than  we  have  reason  to 
believe  their  supposed  wild  parents  would  have  been.  Pallas 
assumes  *^  that  a  long  course  of  domestication  eliminates  that 
sterility  which  the  parent-species  would  have  exhibited  if  only 
lately  captured;  no  distinct  facts  are  recorded  in  support  of 
this  hypothesis ;  but  the  evidence  seems  to  me  so  strong  (in- 
dependently of  the  evidence  derived  from  other  domesticated 
animals)  in  favour  of  our  domestic  dogs  having  descended 
from  several  wild  stocks,  that  I  am  inclined  to  admit  the 
truth  of  this  hypothesis. 

There  is  another  and  closely  allied  difficulty  consequent  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  descent  of  our  domestic  dogs  from  several 
wild  species,  namely,  that  they  do  not  seem  to  be  perfectly 

«  •  Journal   de  la   Physiologie,"  Deutschlands.'   1801.   B.   i.  s.   638. 

tom.  ii.  p.  385.  With    respect    to    Dr.    Hodgkin's 

*°  See    Mr.    R.    Hill's   excellent  statement   made  before   Brit.    As- 

accoiint   of  this  breed   in   Gosse's  soc,  see  '  The  Zoologist,'  vol.   iv., 

'  Jamaica.'      p.      338;      Rengger's  for  1845-46,  p.  1097. 
'  Saueethiere    von    Paraguay.'     s.  *'  '  Acta.      Acad.      St.      Peters- 

153.     With  respect  to  Spitz  dogs,  burgh,'  1780,  part  ii.  pp.  84,  100. 
see       Bechstein's       '  Naturgesch. 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


31 


fertile  with  their  supposed  parents.  But  the  experiment  has 
not  been  quite  fairly  tried;  the  Hungarian  dog,  for  instance, 
which  in  external  appearance  so  closely  resembles  the  Euro- 
pean wolf,  ought  to  be  crossed  with  this  wolf :  and  the  pariah 
dogs  of  India  with  Indian  wolves  and  jackals;  and  so  in 
other  cases.  That  the  sterility  is  very  slight  between  certain 
dogs  and  wolves  and  other  Canidae  is  shown  by  savages  tak- 
ing the  trouble  to  cross  them.  Buffon  got  four  successive 
generations  from  the  wolf  and  dog,  and  the  mongrels  were 
perfectly  fertile  together.*^  But  more  lately  M.  Flourens 
states  positively  as  the  result  of  his  numerous  experiments 
that  hybrids  from  the  wolf  and  dog,  crossed  inter  se,  become 
sterile  at  the  third  generation,  and  those  from  the  jackal 
and  dog  at  the  fourth  generation.''^  But  these  animals  were 
closely  confined;  and  many  wild  animals,  as  we  shall  see  in 
a  future  chapter,  are  rendered  by  confinement  in  some  de- 
gree or  even  utterly  sterile.  The  Dingo,  which  breeds  freely 
in  Australia  with  our  imported  dogs,  would  not  breed  though 
repeatedly  crossed  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.^"  Some  hounds 
from  Central  Africa,  brought  home  by  Major  Denham,  never 
bred  in  the  Tower  of  London ;  °^  and  a  similar  tendency  to 
sterility  might  be  transmitted  to  the  hybrid  offspring  of  a 
wild  animal.  Moreover,  it  appears  that  in  M.  Flourens'  ex- 
periments the  hybrids  were  closely  bred  in  and  in  for  three 
or  four  generations;  and  this  circumstance,  would  most  cer- 
tainly increase  the  tendency  to  sterility.  Several  years  ago 
I  saw  confined  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  of  London  a  fe- 
male hybrid  from  an  English  dog  and  jackal,  which  even  in 
this  the  first  generation  was  so  sterile  that,  as  I  was  assured 
by  her  keeper,  she  did  not  fully  exhibit  her  proper  periods; 


**  M.  Broca  has  shown  ('  Jonr- 
nnl  de  Physiologie,'  torn.  ii.  p. 
353)  that  Biiffon's  experiments 
have  been  often  misrepresented. 
Broca  has  collected  (pp.  .390-395) 
many  facts  on  the  fertility  of 
crossed  dogs,  wolves,  and  jackals. 

"  '  De  la  Lon,?evite  Hnmaine,' 
par  M.  Flourens,  1855,  p.  143. 
Mr.  Blyth  says  ('  Indian  Sporting 
Review,'  vol.  ii.  p.  137)  that  he 
has  seen  in  India  several  hybrids 
from  the  pariah-dog  and  jackal; 
and  between  one  of  these  hybrids 
and  a  terrier.  The  experiments 
of  Hunter  on  the  jackal  are  well- 


known.  See  also  Isid.  Geoffroy 
St.-Hilnire,  '  Hist.  Nat.  G^n.,' 
torn.  iii.  p.  217,  who  speaks  of  the 
hybrid  offspring  of  the  jackal  as 
perfectly  fertile  for  three  gener- 
ations. 

50  On  authority  of  F.  Cuvier, 
quoted  in  Bronn's  '  Geschichte 
der  Nnhir.'  b.  ii.  s.  104. 

51  W.  C.  L.  Martin's  '  History 
of  the  Dog.'  1845.  p.  203.  Mr. 
Philip  P.  King,  after  ample  op- 
portunities of  observation,  in- 
forms me  that  the  Dingo  and  Eu- 
ropean dogs  often  cross  in  Aus- 
tralia. 


32  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

but  this  case  was  certainly  exceptional,  as  numerous  instances 
have  occurred  of  fertile  hybrids  from  these  two  animals.  In 
almost  all  experiments  on  the  crossing  of  animals  there  are 
so  many  causes  of  doubt,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  come 
to  any  positive  conclusion.  It  would,  however,  appear,  that 
those  who  believe  that  our  dogs  are  descended  from  several 
species  will  have  not  only  to  admit  that  their  offspring  after  a 
long  course  of  domestication  generally  lose  all  tendency  to 
sterility  when  crossed  together;  but  that  between  certain 
breeds  of  dogs  and  some  of  their  supposed  aboriginal  parents 
a  certain  degree  of  sterility  has  been  retained  or  possibly  even 
acquired. 

Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  in  regard  to  fertility 
given  in  the  last  two  paragraphs,  when  we  reflect  on  the  in- 
herent improbability  of  man  having  domesticated  through- 
out the  world  one  single  species  alone  of  so  widely  distributed, 
so  easily  tamed,  and  so  useful  a  group  as  the  Canidas;  when 
we  reflect  on  the  extreme  antiquity  of  the  different  breeds; 
and  especially  when  we  reflect  on  the  close  similarity,  both 
in  external  structure  and  habits,  between  the  domestic  dogs 
of  various  countries  and  the  wild  species  still  inhabiting 
these  same  countries,  the  balance  of  evidence  is  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  multiple  origin  of  our  dogs. 

Differences  hetiveen  the  several  Breeds  of  the  Dog. — If 
the  several  breeds  have  descended  from  several  wild  stocks, 
their  difference  can  obviously  in  part  be  explained  by  that  of 
their  parent-species.  For  instance,  the  form  of  the  grey- 
hound may  be  partly  accounted  for  by  descent  from  some 
such  animal  as  the  slim  Abyssinian  Canis  simensis,^'  with  its 
elongated  muzzle;  that  of  the  larger  dogs  from  the  larger 
wolves,  and  the  smaller  and  slighter  dogs  from  the  jackals: 
and  thus  perhaps  we  may  account  for  certain  constitutional 
and  climatal  differences.  But  it  would  be  a  great  error  to 
suppose  that  there  has  not  been  in  addition  ^^  a  large  amount 
of  variation.  The  intercrossing  of  the  several  aboriginal 
wild  stocks,  and  of  the  subsequently  formed  races,  has  prob- 

5-  Riippel,    '  Neue   Wirbelthiere        specimen   of   this   fine   animal    in 
von  Abyssinien,'   1835^0;    '  Mam-        tlie  British  Museum. 
mif.,'   s.   39,   pi.   xiv.    There  is  a  ^^  Even  Pallas  admits  this;  see 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  33 

ably  increased  the  total  number  of  breeds,  and,  as  we  shall 
presently  see,  has  greatly  modified  some  of  them.  But  we 
cannot  explain  by  crossing  the  origin  of  such  extreme  forms, 
as  thoroughbred  greyhounds,  bloodhounds,  bulldogs,  Blen- 
heim spaniels,  terriers,  pugs,  &c.,  unless  we  believe  that  forms, 
equally  or  more  strongly  characterised  in  these  different  re- 
spects once  existed  in  nature.  But  hardly  any  one  has  been 
bold  enough  to  suppose  that  such  unnatural  forms  ever  did 
or  could  exist  in  a  wild  state.  When  compared  with  all 
known  members  of  the  family  of  Canidte  they  betray  a  dis- 
tinct and  abnormal  origin.  No  instance  is  on  record  of  such 
dogs  as  bloodhounds,  spaniels,  true  greyhounds  having  been 
kept  by  savages :  they  are  the  product  of  long-continued  civi- 
lization. 

The  number  of  breeds  and  sub-breeds  of  the  dog  is  great;- 
Youatt,  for  instance,  describes  twelve  kinds  of  greyhounds.  I  will) 
not  attempt  to  enumerate  or  describe  the  varieties,  for  we  cannot 
discriminate  how  much  of  their  difference  is  due  to  variation,  and 
how  much  to  descent  from  different  aboriginal  stocks.  But  it  may* 
be  worth  while  briefly  to  mention  some  points.  Commencing  with 
the  skull,  Cuvier  has  admitted  °*  that  in  form  the  differences  are 
"  plus  fortes  que  celles  d'aucunes  especes  sauvages  d'un  mems; 
genre  naturel."  The  proportions  of  the  different  bones;  the  curva- 
ture of  the  lower  jaw,  the  position  of  the  condyles  with  respect  to 
the  plane  of  the  teeth  (on  which  F.  Cuvier  founded  his  classifica- 
tion), and  in  mastiffs  the  shape  of  its  posterior  branch;  the  shape 
of  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  of  the  temporal  fossae;  the  position  of 
the  occiput — all  vary  considerably.^^  The  difference  in  size  be- 
tween the  brains  of  dogs  belonging  to  large  and  small  breeds  "  is. 
something  prodigious."  "  Some  dogs'  brains  are  high  and  round- 
ed, while  others  are  low,  long,  and  naiTOw  in  front."  In  the  latter,. 
"  the  olfactory  lobes  are  visible  for  about  half  their  extent,  when- 
the  brain  is  seen  from  above,  but  they  are  wholly  concealed  by  the 
hemispheres  in  other  breeds."  ^^  The  dog  has  properly  six  pairs  of 
molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  seven  in  the  lower;  but  several 
naturalists  have  seen  not  rarely  an  additional  pair  in  the  upper 
jaw;"  and  Professor  Gervais  says  that  there  are  dogs  "qui  ont 

•Act.     Acad.     St.     Peter.sburgh,'  eracv    of    the    skull     in    certain 

1780,  p.  93.  breeds,    by    Prof.    Bianconi.    '  La 

^*  Quoted       by       I.       Geoffrov,  Theorie     Darwiuienne,'     1874,     p. 

'  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p.  453.  279. 

55  F.    Cuvier,    in    '  Annnles    du  ^s  dj.,   R^n-t  Wilder,  '  Aniorioan 

Museum,'  torn,  xviii.  p.  337;  God-  Assoc.    Advancement  of  Science,' 

ron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  tom.  i.  p.  342;  1873,   pp.  2.3r,,  239. 
and  Col.   H.    Smith,    in   '  Nat.    Li-  ^7  i^ifi.    Geoffrey    Saint-Hilaire, 

brary,'  vol.   ix.  p.   101.     See,  also,  '  Hist,   des  Anomalies,'  1832,  torn, 

some  observations  on  the  degen-  i.  p.  660,  Gervais,  '  Hist.  Nat.  des; 


34 


DOGS. 


Chap.  I. 


sept  paires  de  dents  superieures  et  huit  inferieures."  De  Blain- 
ville  ®*  has  given  full  particulars  on  the  frequency  of  those  devia- 
tions in  the  number  of  the  teeth,  and  has  shown  that  it  is  not  al- 
ways the  same  tooth  which  is  supernumerary.  In  short-muzzled 
races,  according  to  H.  Miiller,*^  the  molar  teeth  stand  obliquely, 
whilst  in  long-muzzled  races  they  are  placed  longitudinally,  with 
open  spaces  between  them.  The  naked,  so-called  Egyptian  or 
Turkish  dog  is  extremely  deficient  in  its  teeth,'^'^ — sometimes  hav- 
ing none  except  one  molar  on  each  side;  but  this,  though  charac- 
teristic of  the  breed,  must  be  considered  as  a  monstrositv.  M.  Gi- 
rard,"^  who  seems  to  have  attended  closely  to  the  subject,  says 
that  the  period  of  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth  differs 
in  different  dogs,  being  earlier  in  large  dogs;  thus  the  mastiff  as- 
sumes its  adult  teeth  in  four  or  five  months,  whilst  in  the  spaniel 
the  period  is  sometimes  more  than  seven  or  eight  months.  On  the 
other  hand  small  dogs  are  mature,  and  the  females  have  arrived 
at  the  best  age  for  breeding,  when  one  year  old,  whereas  large 
dogs  "  are  still  in  their  puppyhood  at  this  time,  and  take  fully 
twice  as  long  to  develop  their  proportions."  "- 

With  respect  to  minor  differences  little  need  be  said.  Isidore 
Geoffroy  has  shown  '^^  that  in  size  some  dogs  are  six  times  as  long 
{the  tail  being  excluded)  as  others;  and  that  the  height  relatively 
to  the  length  of  the  body  varies  between  one  to  two,  and  one 
to  nearlv  four.  In  the  Scotch  deer-hound  there  is  a  striking  and 
remarkable  difference  in  the  size  of  the  male  and  female."*  Every 
one  knows  how  the  ears  vary  in  size  in  different  breeds,  and  with 
their  great  development  their  muscles  become  atrophied.  Certain 
breeds  of  dogs  are  described  as  having  a  deep  furrow  between  the 
nostrils  and  lips.  The  caudal  vertebrae,  according  to  F.  Cuvier, 
on  whose  authority  the  two  last  statements  rest,  vary  in  number; 
and  the  tail  in  English  cattle  and  some  shepherd  dogs  is  almost 
absent.  The  mammae  vary  from  seven  to  ten  in  number;  Dauben- 
ton,  having  examined  twenty-one  dogs,  found  eight  with  five 
mammse  on  each  side ;  eight  with  four  on  each  side ;  and  the  others 
with  an  unequal  number  on  the  two  sides."'  Dogs  have  properly 
five  toes  in  front  and  four  behind,  but  a  fifth  toe  is  often  added; 
and  F.  Cuvier  states  that,  when  a  fifth  toe  is  present,  a  fourth 
cuneiform  bone  is  developed ;  and,  in  this  case,  sometimes  the  great 
cuneiform  bone  is  raised,  and  gives  on  its  inner  side  a  large  articu- 


Mammiferes.'  torn.  ii..  1855,  p.  66. 
De  Blainville  ('  Osteo^raphie, 
Canidse,'  p.  137)  has  also  seen  an 
extra  molar  on  both  sides. 

5*  '  Osteographle,  Canidse,'  p. 
137. 

59  Wiirzbnrger,  '  Medecin.  Zeits- 
chrift.'  1860,   B.   i.   s.   265, 

'■•f'Mr,  Yarrell,  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog, 
Soc.,'  Oct.  8th,  183.3,  Mr.  Water- 
house  showed  me  a  skull  of 
one  of  these  dogs,  which  had 
only     a     single     molar     on     each 


side  and  some  imperfect  inci- 
cors, 

''I  Quoted  in  '  The  Veterinary,' 
London,  vol.  viii,  p.  415, 

''-  This  Is  quoted  from  Stone- 
henge,  a  great  authority,  '  The 
Dog,'  1867,  p,  187. 

«3  '  Hist.  Nat.  General,'  torn, 
iii.  p.  448. 

«*  W.  Scrope,  '  Art  of  Deer- 
Stalking,'  p.  3.54, 

65  Quoted  bv  Col.  Ham.  Smith 
in  '  Nat.  Lib,,'  vol.  x.  p,  79. 


M 


Chap.  I. 


THEIR  PAREXTAGE. 


35 


lar  surface  to  the  astragalus;  so  that  even  the  relative  connection 
of  the  bones,  the  most  constant  of  all  characters,  varies.  These 
modifications,  however,  in  the  feet  of  dogs  are  not  important,  be- 
cause tliey  ought  to  be  ranked,  as  De  Blainville  has  shown,'^"  as 
monstrosities.  Nevertheless  they  are  interesting  from  being  cor- 
related with  the  size  of  the  body,  for  they  occur  much  more  fre- 
quently with  mastiffs  and  other  large  breeds  than  with  snuiU  dogs. 
Closely  allied  varieties,  however,  sometimes  differ  in  this  respect; 
thus  Mr.  Hodgson  states  that  the  black-and-tan  Lassa  variety  of 
the  Thibet  mastiff  has  the  fifth  digit,  whilst  the  Mustang  sub- 
variety  is  not  thus  characterised.  The  extent  to  which  the  skin 
is  developed  between  the  toes  varies  much;  but  we  shall  return  to 
this  point.  The  degree  to  which  the  various  breeds  differ  in  the 
perfection  of  their  senses,  dispositions,  and  inherited  habits  is 
notorious  to  every  one.  The  breeds  present  some  constitutional 
differences:  the  pulse,  says  Youatt,*^'  "varies  materially  according 
to  the  breed,  as  well  as  to  the  size  of  the  animal.''  J3itl"erent 
breeds  of  dogs  are  subject  in  different  degrees  to  various  diseases. 
They  certainly  become  adapted  to  dift'erent  climates  under  which 
they  have  long  existed.  It  is  notorious  that  most  of  our  best  Eu- 
ropean breeds  deteriorate  in  India.^^  The  Rev.  R.  Everest  ^^  be- 
lieves that  no  one  has  succeeded  in  keeping  the  Newfoundland 
dog  long  alive  in  India;  so  it  is,  according  to  Lichtenstein,'°  even  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Thibet  mastiff  degenerates  on  the 
plains  of  India,  and  can  live  only  on  the  mountains.'^  Lloyd  '^ 
asserts  that  our  bloodhounds  and  bulldogs  have  been  tried,  and 
cannot  withstand  the  cold  of  the  northern  European  forests. 

Seeing  in  how  many  characters  the  races  of  the  dog  differ 
from,  each  other, -and  remembering  Cuvier's  admission  that 
their  skulls  differ  more  than  do  those  of  the  species  of  any 
natural  genus,  and  bearing  in  mind  how  closely  the  bones  of 
wolves,  jackals,  foxes,  and  other  Canidse  agree,  it  is  remark- 
able that  we  meet  with  the  statement,  repeated  over  and 
over  again,  that  the  races  of  the  dog  differ  in  no  important 


®^De  Blainville,  '  Osteographie, 
Canidee,'  p.  134.  F.  Cnvier,  '  x\n- 
nales  du  Museum.,'  torn,  xviii.  p. 
342.  In  regard  to  mastiffs,  see 
Col.  H.  Smith,  '  Nat.  Lil).,'  vol.  x. 
p.  218.  For  the  Thibet  mastiff, 
sre  Mr.  Hodgson  in  •  Journal  of 
As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,'  vol.  i.,  1832, 
p.  342. 

"  '  The  Dog,'  184.->.  p.  ISO. 
With  respect  to  diseases,  Youatt 
asserts  !p.  1G7)  that  the  Italian 
greyhound  is  "  strongly  subject  " 
to  polypi  in  the  matrix  or  vagina. 
The  spaniel  and  pug  (p.  182)  are 
most   liable   to   bronchocele.    The 


liability  to  distemper  (p.  2.32)  is 
extremely  different  in  diff'orent 
breeds.  On  the  distemper,  see, 
also.  Col.  Hutchinson  on  '  Dog 
Breaking.'   1830.   p.  27!). 

•"*  See  Youatt  on  the  Dog.  p.  lo. 
'  The  Veterinarv,'  London,  vol. 
xi.  p.  23.x 

'^^  '  Journal  of  As.  Soc.  of  Ben- 
gal,'  vol.   iii.   p.   10. 

70  '  Travels.'    vol.    ii.    p.   1^. 

^1  Hodgson,  in  '  Journal  of  As. 
Soc.  of  Reuirnl.'  vol.  i.  p.  342. 

''-  '  Field  Sports  of  the  North 
of  Europe,'   vol.   ii.  p.   165. 


36  DOGS.  .         Chap.  I. 

characters.  A  highly  competent  judge,  Professor  Gervais," 
admits  "  si  Ton  prenait  sans  controle  les  alterations  dont 
chacun  de  ces  organes  est  susceptible,  on  pourrait  croire  qu'il 
y  a  entre  les  chiens  domestiques  des  differences  plus  grandes 
que  celles  qui  separent  ailleurs  les  especes,  quelquefois  meme 
les  genres."  Some  of  the  differences  above  enumerated  are 
in  one  respect  of  comparatively  little  value,  for  they  are  not 
characteristic  of  distinct  breeds:  no  one  pretends  that  such 
is  the  case  with  the  additional  molar  teeth  or  with  the  number 
of  mammae;  the  additional  digit  is  generally  present  with 
mastiffs,  and  some  of  the  more  important  differences  in  the 
skull  and  lower  jaw  are  more  or  less  characteristic  of  various 
breeds.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  the  predominant  power 
of  selection  has  not  been  applied  in  any  of  these  cases;  we 
have  variability  in  important  parts,  but  the  differences  have 
not  been  fixed  by  selection.  Man  cares  for  the  form  and 
fleetness  of  his  greyhounds,  for  the  size  of  his  mastiffs,  and 
formerly  for  the  strength  of  the  jaw  of  his  bulldogs,  &c., 
but  he  cares  nothing  about  the  number  of  their  molar  teeth 
or  mammpe  or  digits;  nor  do  we  know  that  differences  in 
these  organs  are  correlated  with,  or  owe  their  development 
to,  differences  in  other  parts  of  the  body  about  which  man 
does  care.  Those  who  have  attended  to  the  subject  of  selec- 
tion will  admit  that,  nature  having  given  variability,  man, 
if  he  so  chose,  could  fix  five  toes  to  the  hinder  feet  of  cer- 
tain breeds  of  dogs,  as  certainly  as  to  the  feet  of  his  Dork- 
ing f  OM'ls :  he  could  probably  fix,  but  with  much  more  diffi- 
culty an  additional  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  either  jaw,  in 
the  same  way  as  he  has  given  additional  horns  to  certain 
breeds  of  sheep ;  if  he  wished  to  produce  a  toothless  breed  of 
dogs,  having  the  so-called  Turkish  dog  with  its  imperfect 
teeth  to  work  on,  he  could  probably  do  so,  for  he  has  suc- 
ceeded in  making  hornless  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

With  respect  to  the  precise  causes  and  steps  by  which  the 
several  races  of  dogs  have  come  to  differ  so  greatly  from  each 
other,  we  are,  as  in  most  other  cases,  profoundly  ignorant. 
We  may  attribute  part  of  the  difference  in  external  form  and 
constitution  to  inheritance  from  distinct  w^ild  stocks ;  that  is, 
to  changes  effected  under  nature  before  domestication.     We 

^3  '  Hist.     Nat.     des    Mammif.,'     1855,  torn.  ii.  pp.  66,  67. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  37 

must  attribute  something  to  the  crossing  of  the  several  do- 
mestic and  natural  races.  I  shall,  however,  soon  recur  to  the 
crossing'  of  races.  We  have  already  seen  how  often  savages 
cross  their  dogs  with  wild  native  species ;  and  Pennant  gives 
a  curious  account  '*  of  the  manner  in  which  Fochabers,  in 
Scotland,  was  stocked  "with  a  multitude  of  curs  of  a  most 
wolfish  aspect "  from  a  single  hybrid  wolf  brought  into  that 
district. 

It  would  appear  that  climate  to  a  certain  extent  directly 
modifies  the  forms  of  dogs.  We  have  lately  seen  that  several 
of  our  English  breeds  cannot  live  in  India,  and  it  is  positively 
asserted  that  when  bred  there  for  a  few  generations  they  de- 
generate not  only  in  their  mental  faculties,  but  in  form.  Cap- 
tain Williamson,'^  who  carefully  attended  to  this  subject, 
states  that  "  hounds  are  the  most  rapid  in  their  decline ;  " 
"  greyhounds  and  pointers,  also,  rapidly  decline."  But  span- 
iels, after  eight  or  nine  generations,  and  without  a  cross  from 
Europe,  are  as  good  as  their  ancestors.  Dr.  Falconer  in- 
forms me  that  bulldogs,  which  have  been  known,  when  first 
brought  into  the  country,  to  pin  down  even  an  elephant  by 
its  trunk,  not  only  fall  off  after  two  or  three  generations  in 
pluck  and  ferocity,  but  lose  the  under-hung  character  of 
their  lower  jaws;  their  muzzles  become  finer  and  their  bodies 
lighter.  English  dogs  imported  into  India  are  so  valuable 
that  probably  due  care  has  been  taken  to  prevent  their  cross- 
ing with  native  dogs;  so  that  the  deterioration  cannot  be 
■thus  accounted  for.  The  Rev.  R.  Everest  informs  me  that 
he  obtained  a  pair  of  setters,  born  in  India,  which  perfectly 
resembled  their  Scotch  parents :  he  raised  several  litters  from 
them  in  Delhi,  taking  the  most  stringent  precautions  to  pre- 
vent a  cross,  but  he  never  succeeded,  though  this  was  only 
the  second  generation  in  India,  in  obtaining  a  single  young 
dog  like  its  parents  in  size  or  make ;  their  nostrils  were  more 
contracted,  their  noses  more  pointed,  their  size  inferior,  and 
their  limbs  more  slender.  So  again  on  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
dogs,  according  to  Bosman,  "  alter  strangely ;  their  ears  grow 
long  and  stiff  like  those  of  foxes,  to  which  colour  they  also 
incline,  so  that  in  three  or  four  years,  they  degenerate  into 

^*  '  History      of      Quadrupeds.'        quoted    by    Youatt,     '  The    Dog,' 
1793.  vol.  i.  p.  238.  p.  15. 

"  '  Oriental       Field       Sports," 


38  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

very  ugly  creatures;  and  in  three  or  four  broods  their  bark- 
ing- turns  into  a  howi."  '"  This  remarkable  tendency  to  rapid 
deterioration  in  European  dogs  subjected  to  the  climate  of 
India  and  Africa,  may  be  largely  accounted  for  by  reversion 
to  a  primordial  condition  which  many  animals  exhibit,  as 
we  shall  hereafter  see,  when  their  constitutions  are  in  any 
way  disturbed. 

Some  of  the  peculiarities  characteristic  of  the  several 
breeds  of  the  dog  have  probably  arisen  suddenlj^  and,  though 
strictly  inherited,  may  be  called  monstrosities;  for  instance, 
the  shape  of  the  legs  and  body  in  the  turnspit  of  Europe  and 
India;  the  shape  of  the  head  and  the  under-hanging  jaw  in 
the  bull-  and  pug-dog,  so  alike  in  this  one  respect  and  so  un- 
like in  all  others.  A  peculiarity  suddenly  arising,  and  there- 
fore in  one  sense  deserving  to  be  called  a  monstrosity,  may, 
however,  be  increased  and  fixed  by  man's  selection.  We  can 
hardly  doubt  that  long-continued  training,  as  with  the  grey- 
hound in  coursing  hares,  as  with  water-dogs  in  swimming — 
and  the  want  of  exercise,  in  the  case  of  lapdogs — must  have 
produced  some  direct  effect  on  their  structure  and  instincts. 
But  we  shall  immediately  see  that  the  most  potent  cause  of 
change  has  probably  been  the  selection,  both  methodical  and 
unconscious,  of  slight  individual  differences, — the  latter  kind 
of  selection  resulting  from  the  occasional  preservation,  dur- 
ing hundreds  of  generations,  of  those  individual  dogs  which 
were  the  most  useful  to  man  for  certain  purposes  and  under 
certain  conditions  of  life.  In  a  future  chapter  on  Selection 
I  shall  show  that  even  barbarians  attend  closely  to  the  quali- 
ties of  their  dogs.  This  unconscious  selection  by  man  would 
be  aided  by  a  kind  of  natural  selection ;  for  the  dogs  of  sav- 
ages have  partly  to  gain  their  own  subsistence :  for  instance, 
in  Australia,  as  we  hear  from  Mr.  Xind,"  the  dogs  are  some- 
times compelled  by  want  to  leave  their  masters  and  provide 
for  themselves ;  but  in  a  few  days  they  generally  return.  And 
we  may  infer  that  dogs  of  different  shapes,  sizes,  and  habits, 
would  have  the  best  chance  of  surviving  under  different  cir- 
cumstances,— on  open  sterile  plains,  where  they  have  to  run 
down  their  own  prey, — on  rocky  coasts,  where  they  have  to 

'"A.  Mnrrny  irives  this  passa.ce  ''Quoted  by  Mr.   Galton,   'Do- 

in  his  '  Geoirniphicjil  Distribution       mestication  of  Animals,'   p.   13. 
of  Mammals,'  4to,  1866,  p.  8. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  39 

feed  on  crabs  and  fish  left  in  the  tidal  pools,  as  in  the  case 
of  New  Guinea  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  In  this  latter  country, 
as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Bridges,  the  Catechist  to  the  ^lis- 
sion,  the  dogs  turn  over  the  stones  on  the  shore  to  catch  the 
crustaceans  which  lie  beneath,  and  they  "  are  clever  enough 
to  knock  off  the  shell-fish  at  a  first  blow;  "  for  if  this  be  not 
done,  shell-fish  are  well  known  to  have  an  almost  invincible 
power  of  adhesion. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  dogs  differ  in  the  degree 
to  which  their  feet  are  webbed.  In  dogs  of  the  Newfound- 
land breed,  which  are  eminently  aquatic  in  their  habits,  the 
skin,  according  to  Isidore  Geoffroy.'*"  extends  to  the  third 
phalanges  whilst  in  ordinary  dogs  it  extends  only  to  the 
second.  In  two  Newfoundland  dogs  which  I  examined,  when 
the  toes  were  stretched  apart  and  viewed  on  the  under  side, 
the  skin  extended  in  a  nearly  straight  line  between  the  outer 
margins  of  the  balls  of  the  toes;  whereas,  in  two  terriers  of 
distinct  sub-breeds,  the  skin  viewed  in  the  same  manner  was 
deeply  scooped  out.  In  Canada  there  is  a  dog  which  is 
peculiar  to  the  country  and  common  there,  and  this  has 
"  half-webbed  feet  and  is  fond  of  the  water."  '^  English 
otter-hounds  are  said  to  have  webbed  feet :  a  friend  examined 
for  me  the  feet  of  two.  in  coniftarison  with  the  feet  of  some 
harriers  and  bloodhounds;  he  found  the  skin  variable  in 
extent  in  all,  but  more  developed  in  the  otter-hounds  than 
in  the  others.*"  As  aquatic  animals  which  belong  to  quite 
different  orders  have  webbed  feet,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
this  structure  would  be  serviceable  to  dogs  that  frequent 
the  water.  We  may  confidently  infer  that  no  man  ever  se- 
lected his  water-dogs  by  the  extent  to  which  the  skin  was 
developed  between  their  toes ;  but  what  he  does,  is  to  preserve 
and  breed  from  those  individuals  which  hunt  best  in  the 
water,  or  best  retrieve  wounded  game,  and  thus  he  uncon- 
sciously selects  dogs  with  feet  slightly  better  webbed.  The 
effects  of  use  from  the  frequent  stretching  apart  of  the  toes 
will  likewise  aid  in  the  result.     Man  thus  closely  imitates 

"  '  Hist.    Nat.    Gen.,'    torn.    iii.  so  See  Mr.   C.   O.   Grooni-Nnpier 

p.  450.  on  the  wel>binf?  of  the  hind  feet 

'"  Mr.    Greenhow  on  the  Cana-  of    Otterhounds,     in     '  Land    and 

dian   Dope,    in   Loudon's   '  Mag.    of  Water,'  Oct.   13th,   18G6,   p.  270. 
Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.   vi.,   1833,   p.  511. 


40  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

^Natural  Selection.  "We  have  an  excellent  illustration  of  this 
same  process  in  ^STorth  America,  where,  according  to  Sir  J. 
Kichardson,"*^  all  the  wolves,  foxes,  and  aboriginal  domestic 
dogs  have  their  feet  broader  than  in  the  corresponding  spe- 
cies of  the  Old  World,  and  "  well  calculated  for  running  on 
the  snow."  Now,  in  these  Arctic  regions,  the  life  or  death 
of  every  animal  will  often  depend  on  its  success  in  hunting 
over  the  snow  when  soft;  and  this  will  in  part  depend  on 
the  feet  being  broad ;  yet  they  must  not  be  so  broad  as  to 
interfere  with  the  activity  of  the  animal  when  the  ground 
is  sticky,  or  with  its  power  of  burrowing  holes,  or  with  other 
necessary  habits  of  life. 

As  changes  in  domestic  breeds  which  take  place  so  slowly 
are  not  to  be  noticed  at  any  one  period,  whether  due  to  the 
selection  of  individual  variations  or  of  diiferences  resulting 
from  crosses,  are  most  important  in  understanding  the  origin 
of  our  domestic  productions,  and  likewise  in  throwing  in- 
direct light  on  the  changes  effected  under  nature,  I  will  give 
in  detail  such  cases  as  I  have  been  able  to  collect.  Law- 
rence,"' who  paid  particular  attention  to  the  history  of  the 
foxhound,  writing  in  1829,  says  that  between  eighty  and 
ninety  years  before  "  an  entirely  new  foxhound  was  raised 
through  the  breeder's  art,"  the  ears  of  the  old  southern  hound 
being  reduced,  the  bone  and  bulk  lightened,  the  waist  in- 
creased in  length,  and  the  stature  somewhat  added  to.  It 
is  believed  that  this  was  effected  by  a  cross  with  a  grey- 
hound. With  respect  to  this  latter  dog,  Youatt,**"*  who  is  gen- 
erally cautious  in  his  statements,  says  that  the  greyhound 
within  the  last  fifty  years,  that  is  before  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century,  "  assumed  a  somewhat  different  char- 
acter from  that  which  he  once  possessed.  He  is  now  dis- 
tinguished by  a  beautiful  symmetry  of  form,  of  which  he 
could  not  once  boast,  and  he  has  even  superior  speed  to 
that  which  he  formerly  exhibited.  He  is  no  longer  used 
to  struggle  with  deer,  but  contends  with  his  fellows  over  a 
shorter  and  speedier  course."     An  able  writer  ^*  believes  that 

*i  '  Fauna     Boreali-Americana,'  with    respect    to    King    Cliaiies's 

1829,  p.  62.  spaniel,     p.     45;  for     tlie     setter, 

82  '  Tjjp  Horse  in  all  his  Varie-  p.  90. 

ties,'   &c.,  1829,   pp.  230.  234.  «*  In   the    '  Encyclop,    of   Rural 

«3  '  The  Dog,'  1845,   pp.   31,  35;  Sports,'  p.  557. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  4-1 

our  English  greyhounds  are  the  descendants,  progressively 
improved,  of  the  large  rough  greyhounds  which  existed  in 
Scotland  so  early  as  the  third  century.  A  cross  at  some 
former  period  with  the  Italian  greyhound  has  been  suspected ; 
but  this  seems  hardly  probable,  considering  the  feebleness 
of  this  latter  breed.  Lord  Orford,  as  is  well  known,  crossed 
his  famous  greyhounds,  which  failed  in  courage,  with  a  bull- 
dog— this  breed  being  chosen  from  being  erroneously  sup- 
posed to  be  deficient  in  the  power  of  scent ;  "  after  the  sixth 
or  seventh  generation,"  says  Youatt,  "  there  was  not  a  ves- 
tige left  of  the  form  of  the  bulldog,  but  his  courage  and  in- 
domitable perseverance  remained." 

Youatt  infers,  from  a  comparison  of  an  old  picture  of 
King  Charles's  spaniels  with  the  living  dog,  that  "  the  breed 
of  the  present  day  is  materially  altered  for  the  worse :  "  the 
muzzle  has  become  shorter,  the  forehead  more  prominent, 
and  the  eyes  larger;  the  changes  in  this  case  have  probably 
been  due  to  simple  selection.  The  setter,  as  this  author  re- 
marks in  another  place,  "  is  evidently  the  large  spaniel  im- 
proved to  his  present  f)eculiar  size  and  beauty,  and  taught 
another  way  of  marking  his  game.  If  the  form  of  the  dog 
were  not  sufficiently  satisfactory  on  this  point,  we  might 
have  recourse  to  history :  "  he  then  refers  to  a  document 
dated  1685  bearing  on  this  subject,  and  adds  that  the  pure 
Irish  setter  shows  no  signs  of  a  cross  with  the  pointer,  which 
some  authors  suspect  has  been  the  case  with  the  English 
setter.  The  bulldog  is  an  English  breed,  and  as  I  hear  from 
Mr.  G.  R.  Jesse,^^  seems  to  have  originated  from  the  mastiff 
since  the  time  of  Shakespeare;  but  certainly  existed  in  1631, 
as  shown  by  Prestwick  Eaton's  letters.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  fancy  bulldogs  of  the  present  day,  now  that 
they  are  not  used  for  bull-baiting,  have  become  greatly  re- 
duced in  size,  without  any  express  intention  on  the  part 
of  the  breeder.  Our  pointers  are  certainly  descended  from 
a  Spanish  breed,  as  even  their  present  names,  Don,  Ponto, 
Carlos,  &c.,  show;  it  is  said  that  they  were  not  known  in 
England  before  the  Ee^^olution  in  1688 ;  ^''  but  the  breed  since 

''s  Author   of    '  Researches    into        the   antiquity   of   the    Pointer,    in 
the  History  of  the  British  Doj;.'  '  Nat.  Lib.,'  vol.  x.  p.  VM. 

^^  See  Col.   Hamilton   Smith  on 


42  DOGS.  Chap.  I. 

its  introduction  has  been  much  modified,  for  Mr.  Borrow,  who 
is  a  sportsman  and  knows  Spain  intimately  well,  informs  me 
that  he  has  not  seen  in  that  country  any  breed  "  correspond- 
ing in  figure  with  the  English  pointer ;  but  there  are  genuine 
pointers  near  Xeres  which  have  been  imported  by  English 
gentlemen."  A  nearly  parallel  case  is  offered  by  the  New- 
foundland dog,  which  was  certainly  brought  into  England 
from  that  country,  but  which  has  since  been  so  much  modi- 
fied that,  as  several  writers  have  observed,  it  does  not  now 
closely  resemble  any  existing  native  dog  in  Newfoundland.*^ 
These  several  cases  of  slow  and  gradual  changes  in  our 
English  dogs  possess  some  interest;  for  though  the  changes 
have  generally,  but  not  invariably,  been  caused  by  one  or 
two  crosses  with  a  distinct  breed,  yet  we  may  feel  sure,  from 
the  well-known  extreme  variability  of  crossed  breeds,  that 
rigorous  and  long-continued  selection  must  have  been  prac- 
tised, in  order  to  improve  them  in  a  definite  manner.  As 
soon  as  any  strain  or  family  became  slightly  improved  or 
better  adapted  to  altered  circumstances,  it  would  tend  to  sup- 
plant the  older  and  less  improved  strains.  Eor  instance,  as 
soon  as  the  old  foxhound  was  imiDroved  by  a  cross  with  the 
greyhound,  or  by  simple  selection,  and  assumed  its  present 
character — and  the  change  was  probably  desired  owing  to 
the  increased  fleetness  of  our  hunters — it  rapidly  spread 
throughout  the  country,  and  is  now  everywhere  nearly  uni- 
form. But  the  process  of  improvement  is  still  going  on,  for 
every  one  tries  to  improve  his  strain  by  occasionally  procur- 
ing dogs  from  the  best  kennels.  Through  this  process  of 
gradual  substitution  the  old  English  hound  has  been  lost; 
and  so  it  has  been  with  the  Irish  wolf-dog,  the  old  English 
bulldog,  and  several  other  breeds,  such  as  the  alaunt,  as  I  am 
informed  by  Mr.  Jesse.  But  the  extinction  of  former  breeds 
is  apparently  aided  by  another  cause;  for  whenever  a  breed 
is  kept  in  scanty  numbers,  as  at  present  with  the  blood- 
hound, it  is  reared  with  some  difficulty,  apparently  from  the 
evil  effects  of  long-continued  close  interbreeding.     As  several 

87  The  Newfoundland  do?  is  be-  Bechstein's  'Naturgesch.  Deutsch- 

lieved  to  have  originated  from  a  land,'  Band.  1.  s.  574;  '  Nat.  Lib.,' 

cross  between  the  Esquimaux  dog  vol.    x.    p.    132;    also    Mr.    Jukes' 

and   a    large   French   hound.      See  '  Excursion    in    and    about    New- 

Dr.  Hodgkin,  '  Brit.  Assoc.,'  1844;  fouudland.' 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  43 

breeds  of  the  dog  have  been  slightly  but  sensibly  modified 
within  so  short  a  period  as  the  last  one  or  two  centuries, 
by  the  selection  of  the  best  individuals,  modified  in  many 
cases  by  crosses  with  other  breeds;  and  as  we  shall  hereafter 
see  that  the  breeding  of  dogs  was  attended  to  in  ancient 
times,  as  it  still  is  by  savages,  we  may  conclude  that  we 
have  in  selection,  even  if  only  occasionally  practised,  a  po- 
tent means  of  modification. 

Domestic  Cats. 

Cats  have  been  domesticated  in  the  East  from  an  an- 
cient period;  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that  they  are  men- 
tioned in  a  Sanskrit  writing  2000  years  old,  and  in  Egypt 
their  antiquity  is  known  to  be  even  greater,  as  shown  by 
monumental  drawings  and  their  mummied  bodies.  Thqse 
mummies,  according  to  De  Blainville,'*'*  who  has  particularly 
studied  the  subject,  belong  to  no  less  than  three  species, 
namely,  F.  caligulata,  huhastes,  and  chaus.  The  two  former 
species  are  said  to  be  still  found,  both  wild  and  domesticated, 
in  parts  of  Egypt.  F.  caligulata  presents  a  difference  in  the 
first  inferior  milk  molar  tooth,  as  compared  with  the  domes- 
tic cats  of  Europe,  which  makes  De  Blainville  conclude  that 
it  is  not  one  of  the  parent-forms  of  our  cats.  Several  natu- 
ralists, as  Pallas,  Temminck,  Blyth,  believe  that  domestic  cats, 
are  the  descendants  of  several  species  commingled :  it  is  cer- 
tain that  cats  cross  readily  with  various  wild  species,  and 
it  would  appear  that  the  character  of  the  domestic  breeds 
has,  at  least  in  some  cases,  been  thus  affected.  Sir  W.  Jar- 
dine  has  no  doubt  that,  "  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  there  has 
been  occasional  crossing  with  our  native  species  (F.  sylves- 
tris),  and  that  the  result  of  these  crosses  has  been  kept  in 
our  houses.  I  have  seen,"  he  adds,  "  many  cats  very  closely 
resembling  the  wild  cat,  and  one  or  two  that  could  scarcely 
be   distinguished   from    it."     Mr.    Blyth  ^'■*    remarks    on    this 

8«  De  Blainville.  '  Osteographie,  passage  from  Sir.  W.  Janlino  is- 
Felis.'  p.  (15,  on  the  character  of  quoted  from  this  Report.  Mr. 
F.  caligulata:  pp.  85,  89,  90,  175,  Blyth,  who  has  especially  attend- 
on  the  other  mnmmied  species.  ed  to  the  wild  and  domestic  cats 
He  quotes  Ehrenbert?  on  F.  man'i-  of  India,  has  given  in  this  Re- 
culata  l)eing  mummied.  port  a  very  interesting  discussioii 

8"  Asia  tic   Soc  of  Calcutta;   Cn-  on  their  origin, 
rator's   Report,    Aug.,    1856.    The 


44  DOMESTIC  CATS.  Chap.  I. 

passage,  "  but  such  cats  are  never  seen  in  the  southern  parts 
of  England;  still,  as  compared  with  any  Indian  tame  cat, 
the  affinity  of  the  ordinary  British  cat  to  F.  sylvestris  is 
manifest;  and  due  I  suspect  to  frequent  intermixture  at  a 
time  when  the  tame  cat  was  first  introduced  into  Britain  and 
•continued  rare,  while  the  wild  species  was  far  more  abundant 
than  at  present."  In  Plungary,  Jeitteles  ^''  was  assured  on 
trustworthy  authority  that  a  wild  male  cat  crossed  with 
a  female  domestic  cat,  and  that  the  hybrids  long  lived  in  a 
•domesticated  state.  In  Algiers  the  domestic  cat  has  crossed 
with  the  wild  cat  (F.  lyhica)  of  that  country."^  In  South 
Africa  as  Mr.  E.  Layard  informs  me,  the  domestic  cat  inter- 
mingles freely  with  the  wild  F.  caffra;  he  has  seen  a  pair 
•of  hybrids  which  were  quite  tame  and  particularly  attached 
to  the  lady  who  brought  them  up;  and  Mr.  Fry  has  found 
that  these  hybrids  are  fertile.  In  India  the  domestic  cat, 
according  to  Mr.  Blyth,  has  crossed  with  four  Indian  species. 
With  respect  to  one  of  these  species,  F.  chaus,  an  excellent 
observer.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  informs  me  that  he  once  killed,  near 
Itladras,  a  wild  brood,  which  were  evidently  hybrids  from 
the  domestic  cat;  these  young  animals  had  a  thick  lynx-like 
tail  and  the  broad  brown  bar  on  the  inside  of  the  forearm 
characteristic  of  F.  chaus.  Sir  W.  Elliot  adds  that  he  has 
often  observed  this  same  mark  on  the  forearms  of  domestic 
cats  in  India.  Mr.  Blyth  states  that  domestic  cats  coloured 
nearly  like  F.  chaus,  but  not  resembling  that  species  in  shape, 
abound  in  Bengal ;  he  adds,  "  such  a  colouration  is  utterly 
unknown  in  European  cats,  and  the  proper  tabby  markings 
{pale  streaks  on  a  black  ground,  peculiarly  and  symmetrically 
•disposed),  so  common  in  English  cats,  are  never  seen  in 
those  of  India."  Dr.  D.  Short  has  assured  Mr.  Blyth "'  that, 
:at  Hansi,  hybrids  between  the  common  cat  and  F.  ornata 
(or  torquata)  occur,  "  and  that  many  of  the  domestic  cats 
■of  that  part  of  India  were  undistinguishable  from  the  wild 
F.  ornata"  Azara  states,  but  only  on  the  authority  of  the 
inhabitants,  that  in  Paraguay  the  cat  has  crossed  with  two 
native   species.     From   these    several   cases    we    see    that    in 

90  '  Fauna  Hungarife  Snp.,  18G2,        '  Histoire    Nat.    G6n.,'    torn.    iii. 
s,  12.  p.  177. 

"  Isid.    Geoffroy    Saint-Hilaire,  ^^  •  proe.  Zoolog.  S.,'  1863,  184. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR  VARIATION.  45 

Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  the  common  cat,  which 
lives  a  freer  life  than  most  other  domesticated  animals,  has 
crossed  with  various  wild  species ;  and  that  in  some  instances 
the  crossing-  has  been  sufficiently  frequent  to  affect  the  char- 
acter of  the  breed. 

Whether  domestic  cats  have  descended  from  several  dis- 
tinct species,  or  have  only  been  modified  by  occasional  crosses, 
their  fertility,  as  far  as  is  known,  is  unimpaired.  The  large 
Angora  or  Persian  cat  is  the  most  distinct  in  structure  and 
habits  of  all  the  domestic  breeds;  and  is  believed  by  Pallas, 
but  on  no  distinct  evidence,  to  be  descended  from  the  F. 
manul  of  middle  Asia;  and  I  am  assured  by  Mr.  Blyth  that 
the  Angora  cat  breeds  freely  with  Indian  cats,  which,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  have  apparently  been  much  crossed  with 
F.  chaiis.  In  England  half-bred  Angora  cats  are  perfectly 
fertile  with  one  another. 

Within  the  same  country  we  do  not  meet  with  distinct 
races  of  the  cat,  as  we  do  of  dogs  and  of  most  other  domestic 
animals ;  though  the  cats  of  the  same  country  present  a 
considerable  amount  of  fluctuating  variability.  The  explana- 
tion obviously  is  that,  from  their  nocturnal  and  rambling 
habits,  indiscriminate  crossing  cannot  without  much  trouble 
be  prevented.  Selection  cannot  be  brought  into  play  to 
produce  distinct  breeds,  or  to  keep  those  distinct  which  have 
been  imported  from  foreign  lands.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
islands  and  in  countries  completely  separated  from  each 
other,  we  meet  with  breeds  more  or  less  distinct;  and  these 
cases  are  worth  giving,  showing  that  the  scarcity  of  distinct 
races  in  the  same  country  is  not  caused  by  a  deficiency  of 
variability  in  the  animal.  The  tailless  cats  of  the  Isle  of 
Man  are  said  to  differ  from  common  cats  not  only  in  the  want 
of  a  tail,  but  in  the  greater  length  of  their  hind  legs,  in  the 
size  of  their  heads,  and  in  habits.  The  Creole  cat  of  Antigua, 
as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Nicholson,  is  smaller,  and  has  a 
more  elongated  head,  than  the  British  cat.  In  Ceylon,  as  Mr. 
Thwaites  w^rites  to  me,  every  one  at  first  notices  the  different 
appearance  of  the  native  cat  from  the  English  animal;  it  is 
of  small  size,  with  closely  lying  hairs;  its  head  is  small,  with 
a  receding  forehead;  but  the  ears  are  large  and  sharp;  alto- 
gether it  has  what  is  there  called  a  "  low-caste  "  appearance. 


46  DOMESTIC  CATS.  Chap.  I. 

Kengger "'  says  that  the  domestic  cat,  which  has  been  bred 
for  300  years  in  Paraguay,  presents  a  striking  difference  from 
the  European  cat;  it  is  smaller  by  a  fourth,  has  a  more 
lanky  body,  its  hair  is  short,  shining,  scanty,  and  lies  close, 
especially  on  the  tail:  he  adds  that  the  change  has  been  less 
at  Ascension,  the  capital  of  Paraguay,  owing  to  the  con- 
tinual crossing  with  newly  imported  cats;  and  this  fact  well 
illustrates  the  importance  of  separation.  The  conditions  of 
life  in  Paraguay  appear  not  to  be  highly  favourable  to  the 
cat,  for,  though  they  have  run  half-wild,  they  do  not  be- 
come thoroughly  feral,  like  so  many  other  European  animals. 
In  another  part  of  South  America,  according  to  Roulin,^* 
the  introduced  cat  has  lost  the  habit  of  uttering  its  hideous 
nocturnal  howl.  The  Rev.  W.  D.  Eox  purchased  a  cat  in 
Portsmouth,  which  he  was  told  came  from  the  coast  of 
Guinea;  its  skin  was  black  and  wrinkled,  fur  bluish-grey 
and  short,  its  ears  rather  bare,  legs  long,  and  whole  aspect 
peculiar.  This  "  negro  "  cat  was  fertile  with  common  cats. 
On  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  at  Mombas,  Captain  Owen, 
R.  N.,^^  states  that  all  the  cats  are  covered  with  short  stiff 
hair  instead  of  fur:  he  gives  a  curious  account  of  a  cat  from 
Algoa  Bay,  which  had  been  kept  for  some  time  on  board  and 
could  be  identified  with  certainty;  this  animal  was  left  for 
only  eight  weeks  at  Mombas,  but  during  that  short  period  it 
"  underwent  a  complete  metamorphosis,  having  parted  with 
its  sandy-coloured  fur."  A  cat  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  has  been  described  by  Desmarest  as  remarkable  from 
a  red  stripe  extending  along  the  whole  length  of  its  back. 
Throughout  an  immense  area,  namely,  the  Malayan  archi- 
pelago, Siam,  Pegu,  and  Burmah,  all  the  cats  have  truncated 
tails  about  half  the  proper  length,^"  often  with  a  sort  of  knot 
at  the  end.  In  the  Caroline  archipelago  the  cats  have  very 
long  legs,  and  are  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour."^  In  China  a 
breed  has  drooping  ears.     At  Tobolsk,  according  to  Gmelin, 

^•3  '  Sau??etliiere  von  Paraguay,'  of    the    Indian    Islands,'    p.    255. 

1830.   s.  212.  The    Madnprascar    cat    is    said    to 

'■>*  '  Mem.    pi-psentes   par   divers  have  a  twisted   tail:  see  Desniar- 

Savans:  Acad.  Rov.  des  Sriences.'  est,   in   '  Encvclop.   Xnt.   Mamm.,' 

torn.  vi.  p.  346.     Gomara  first  no-  1820,  p.  233,  for  some  of  the  other 

ticed  this  fact  in  1554.  breeds. 

95  '  Narrative  of  Voyages,'  vol.  <*■  Admiral  Lutke's  Voyage,  vol. 

ii.  p.  180.  iii.  p.  308. 


9S 


J.  Crawfurd,  '  Descrip.  Diet. 


Chap.  I.  THEIR   VARIATIOX.  47 

there  is  a  red-coloured  breed.  In  Asia,  also,  we  find  the 
well-known  Angora  or  Persian  breed. 

The  domestic  cat  has  run  wild  in  several  countries,  and 
everywhere  assumes,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  by  the  short 
recorded  descriptions,  a  uniform  character.  Xear  Maldon- 
ado,  in  La  Plata,  I  shot  one  which  seemed  perfectly  wild ;  it 
was  carefully  examined  by  Mr.  Waterhouse,""*  who  found 
nothing  remarkable  in  it,  excepting  its  great  size.  In  Xew 
Zealand  according  to  Dieffcnbach,  the  feral  cats  assume  a 
streaky  grey  colour  like  that  of  wild  cats;  and  this  is  the 
case  with  the  half-wild  cats  of  the  Scotch  Highlands. 

We  have  seen  that  distant  countries  possess  distinct  do- 
mestic races  of  the  cat.  The  differences  may  be  in  part  due 
to  descent  from  several  aboriginal  species,  or  at  least  to 
crosses  with  them.  In  some  cases,  as  in  Paraguay,  Mombas, 
and  Antigua,  the  differences  seem  due  to  the  direct  action  of 
different  conditions  of  life.  In  other  cases  some  slight  effect 
may  possibly  be  attributed  to  natural  selection,  as  cats  in 
many  cases  have  largely  to  support  themselves  and  to  escape 
diverse  dangers.  But  man,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  pairing 
cats,  has  done  nothing  by  methodical  selection;  and  probably 
very  little  by  unintentional  selection;  though  in  each  litter 
he  generally  saves  the  prettiest,  and  values  most  a  good  breed 
of  mouse-  or  rat-catchers.  Those  cats  which  have  a  strong 
tendency  to  prowl  after  game,  generally  get  destroyed  by 
traps.  As  cats  are  so  much  petted,  a  breed  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  other  cats,  that  lapdogs  bear  to  larger  dogs,  would 
have  been  much  valued;  and  if  selection  could  have  been 
applied,  we  should  certainly  have  had  many  breeds  in  each 
long-civilized  country,  for  there  is  plenty  of  variability  to 
work  upon. 

We  see  in  this  country  considerable  diversity  in  size, 
soma  in  the  proportions  of  the  body,  and  extreme  variability 
in  colouring.  I  have  only  lately  attended  to  this  subject, 
but  have  already  heard  of  some  singular  cases  of  variation; 
one  of  a  cat  born  in  the  West  Indies  toothless,  and  remain- 
ing so  all  its  life.     Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  shown  me  the  skull 

98  '  Zoology  of  the  Voyage  of  Zealand.'  vol.  ii.  p.  ISr).  Ch.  St. 
the  Beagle,  Mammalia,''  p.  20.  John,  'Wild  Sports  of  the  High- 
Dieffenbach,     '  Travels     in     New       lauds,'  1S4G,  p.  40. 


48 


DOMESTIC  CATS. 


Chap.  I. 


of  a  female  cat  with  its  canines  so  much  developed  that  they 
protruded  uncovered  beyond  the  lips;  the  tooth  with  the 
fang  being  .95,  and  the  part  projecting  from  the  gum  .6  of 
an  inch  in  length.  I  have  heard  of  several  families  of  six- 
toed  cats,  in  one  of  which  the  peculiarity  had  been  trans- 
mitted for  at  least  three  generations.  The  tail  varies  greatly 
in  length ;  I  have  seen  a  cat  which  always  carried  its  tail 
flat  on  its  back  when  pleased.  The  ears  vary  in  shape,  and 
certain  strains,  in  England,  inherit  a  pencil-like  tuft  of  hairs, 
above  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  on  the  tips  of  their 
ears;  and  this  same  peculiarity,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth,  char- 
acterises some  cats  in  India.  The  great  variability  in  the 
length  of  the  tail  and  the  lynx-like  tufts  of  hairs  on  the  ears 
are  apparently  analogous  to  differences  in  certain  wild  spe- 
cies of  the  genus.  A  much  more  important  difference,  ac- 
cording to  Daubenton,""  is  that  the  intestines  of  domestic 
cats  are  wider,  and  a  third  longer  than  in  wild  cats  of  the 
same  size;  and  this  apparently  has  been  by  their  less  strictly 
carnivorous  diet. 


"9  Quoted    by     Isid,     Geoffroy,    Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p.  427. 


Chap.  II. 


HORSES  AND  ASSES. 


49 


CHAPTER  11. 


HORSES   AND   ASSES. 

Horses. — Differences  in  the  breeds — Individual  variability  of— Direct  ef- 
fects of  the  conditions  of  life — Can  withstand  much  cold — Breeds  much 
modified  by  selection — Colours  of  the  horse — Dappling — Dark  stripes 
on  the  spine,  legs,  shoulders,  and  forehead— Dun-coloured  horses  most 
frequently  striped — Stripes  probably  due  to  reversion  to  the  primitive 
state  of  the  horse. 

Asses. — Breeds  of — Colour  of — Leg-  and  shoulder-  stripes — Shoulder-stripes 
sometimes  absent,  sometimes  forked. 

The  history  of  the  Horse  is  lost  in  antiquity.  Remains 
of  this  animal  in  a  domesticated  condition  have  been  found 
in  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings,  belonging  to  the  I^eolithic  pe- 
riod.'^  x\t  the  present  time  the  number  of  breeds  is  great, 
as  may  be  seen  by  consulting  any  treatise  on  the  Horse.* 
Looking  only  to  the  native  ponies  of  Great  Britain,  those  of 
the  Shetland  Isles,  Wales,  the  New  Forest,  and  Devonshire 
are  distinguishable;  and  so  it  is,  amongst  other  instances, 
with  each  separate  island  in  the  great  Malay  archipelago.*" 
Some  of  the  breeds  present  great  differences  in  size,  shape 
of  ears,  length  of  mane,  proportions  of  the  body,  form  of 
the  withers  and  hind  quarters,  and  especially  in  the  head.. 
Compare  the  race-horse,  dray-horse,  and  a  Shetland  pony  in 
size,  configuration,  and  disposition ;  and  see  how  much  greater 
the  difference  is  than  between  the  seven  or  eight  other  living 
species  of  the  genus  Equus. 

Of  individual  variations  not  known  to  characterise  par- 
ticular breeds,  and  not  great  or  injurious  enough  to  be  called 


iRiitimever,  'Fauna  der  Pfahl- 
bauten,'  18(il,  s.  122. 

-  See  Youatt  on  the  Horse:  J. 
Lawrence  on  the  Horse.  1829; 
W.  C.  L.  Martin.  '  Historv  of  the 
Horse,'  184.5:  Col.  H.  Smith,  in 
'  Nat.  Library,  Horses,'  1841,  vol. 
xii.:  Prof.  Veith,  'Die  naturgesch. 
Haussangethiere.'  18.")n. 

^  Crawfnrd.  *  Desoript.  Diet,  of 
Indian  Islands.'  18.')6,  p.  lo8, 
"There  are  many  different  breeds, 


every  island  having  at  least  one- 
peculiar  to  it."  Thus  in  Sumatra 
there  are  at  least  two  breeds:  in 
Achin  and  Batubara  one:  in  .Java 
several  breeds;  one  in  Bali.  Loni- 
boc.  Sumbawa  (one  of  the  best 
breeds).  Tarabora.  Bima,  Gnnnng- 
api.  Celebes,  Snmba.  and  riiilip- 
pines.  Other  breeds  are  si)eei- 
tied  by  Zollinger  in  the  '  Journal 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago,'  vol.  v. 
p.  343,   &c. 


50  HORSES.  Chap.  II. 

monstrosities,  I  have  not  collected  many  cases.  Mr.  G. 
Brown,  of  the  Cirencester  Agricultural  College,  who  has 
particularly^  attended  to  the  dentition  of  our  domestic  ani- 
mals, writes  to  me  that  he  has  "  several  times  noticed  eight 
permanent  incisors  instead  of  six  in  the  jaw."  Male  horses 
only  should  have  canines,  but  they  are  occasionally  found 
in  the  mare,  though  a  small  size.*  The  number  of  ribs  on 
«each  side  is  properly  eighteen,  but  Youatt  ^  asserts  that  not 
iinfrequently  there  are  nineteen,  the  additional  one  being 
.■always  the  posterior  rib.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
ancient  Indian  horse  is  said  in  the  Rig- Veda  to  have  only 
seventeen  ribs;  and  M.  Pietrement,''  who  has  called  atten- 
i;ion  to  this  subject,  gives  various  reasons  for  placing  full 
trust  in  this  statement,  more  especially  as  during  former 
times  the  Hindoos  carefully  counted  the  bones  of  animals. 
I  have  seen  several  notices  of  variations  in  the  bones  of  the 
leg ;  thus  Mr.  Price '  speaks  of  an  additional  bone  in  the 
hock,  and  of  certain  abnormal  appearances  between  the  tibia 
and  astragalus,  as  quite  common  in  Irish  horses,  and  not 
due  to  disease.  Horses  have  often  been  observed,  according 
to  M.  Gaudry,^  to  possess  a  trapezium  and  a  rudiment  of  a 
fifth  metacarpal  bone,  so  that  "  one  sees  appearing  by  mon- 
strosity, in  the  foot  of  the  horse,  structures  which  normally 
exist  in  the  foot  of  the  Hipparion," — an  allied  and  extinct 
animal.  In  various  countries  horn-like  projections  have  been 
observed  on  the  frontal  bones  of  the  horse :  in  one  case  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Percival  they  arose  about  two  inches  above 
the  orbital  processes,  and  were  "  very  like  those  in  a  calf 
from  five  to  six  months  old,"  being  from  -half  to  three-quar- 
ters of  an  inch  in  length.^  Azara  has  described  two  cases 
in  South  America  in  which  the  projections  were  between 
three  and  four  inches  in  length :  other  instances  have  occurred 
in   Spain. 

That  there  has  been  much  inherited  variation  in  the  horse 

*  '  The    Horse,'    &c.,    bv    John  «  '  Bnlletin  de  lt\  Soc.  Geolog.,' 

Lawrence.  ]S2n.   p.  14.  torn.  xxii..  1866.  p.  22. 

s  '  The      Veterinary,'      London,  ^  Mr.    Percival,    of    the    Ennis- 

Tol.  V.  p.  ."4.3.  "^  killen    Drajxoons.    in    '  Tlie   Veter- 

"  '  Memoire   sur  les   chevaux   a  inary,'    vol.    i.    p.   224:    see  Azara, 

trente-quatre  cotes."   1871.  '  Des  Qnadrnpedes  dn   Paraguay.' 

"  Proc.     Veterinary     Assoc,     in  torn.  ii.  p.  31.3.     The  French  trans- 

•*  The  Veterinary,'  vol.  xiii.  p.  42.  lator    of    Azara    refers    to    other 


Chap.  II. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


51 


cannot  be  doubted,  when  we  reflect  on  the  number  of  the 
breeds  existing  throughout  the  world  or  even  within  the 
same  country,  and  w^hen  we  know  that  they  have  largely 
increased  in  number  since  the  earliest  known  records."* 
Even  in  so  fleeting  a  character  as  colour,  Hof acker"  found 
that,  out  of  216  cases  in  which  horses  of  the  same  colour 
were  paired,  only  eleven  pairs  produced  foals  of  a  quite  dif- 
ferent colour.  As  Professor  Low '"  has  remarked,  the  Eng- 
lish race-horse  offers  the  best  possible  evidence  of  inheritance. 
The  pedigree  of  a  race-horse  is  of  more  value  in  judging  of 
its  probable  success  than  its  appearance :  "  King  Herod " 
gained  in  prizes  201,505Z.  sterling,  and  begot  497  winners; 
"  Eclipse  "  begot  334  winners. 

Whether  the  whole  amount  of  difference  between  the 
various  breeds  has  arisen  under  domestication  is  doubtful. 
Erom  the  fertility  of  the  most  distinct  breeds  ^^  when  crossed, 
naturalists  have  generally  looked  at  all  the  breeds  as  having 
descended  from  a  single  species.  Few  will  agree  with  Colo- 
nel H.  Smith,  who  believes  that  they  have  descended  from 
no  less  than  five  primitive  and  differently  coloured  stocks 
But  as  several  species  and  varieties  of  the  horse  existed 
during  the  later  tertiary  periods,  and  as  Riitimeyer  found 
differences  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  skull  in  the  earliest 
known  domesticated  horses,^"  we  ought  not  to  feel  sure  that 
all  our  breeds  are  descended  from  a  single  species.  The  sav- 
ages of  iSTorth  and  South  America  easily  reclaim  the  feral 
horses,  so  that  there  is  no  improbability  in  savages  in  vari- 
ous quarters  of  the  world  having  domesticated  more  than 
one  native  species  or  natural  race.     M.  Sanson  "  thinks  that 


14 


15 


cases  mentioned  by  Hnzard  as 
having  occurred  in  Spain. 

1^  Godron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  torn. 
1.  p.  378. 

^^  '  Ueber  die  Eigenschaften,' 
&c.,  182S,  s.  10. 

1-  '  Domesticated  Animals  of 
tlie  British  Islands,'  pp.  527,  532. 
In  all  the  veterinary  treatises  and 
papers  which  I  have  read,  the 
writers  insist  in  the  strongest 
terms  on  the  inheritance  by  the 
horse  of  all  good  and  bad  ten- 
dencies and  qualities.  Perhaps 
the  principle  of  inheritance  is  not 
really  stronger  in  the  horse  than 
in  any   other   animal;    but,    from 


its  value,  the  tendency  has  been 
more  carefully  observed. 

13  Andrew  Knight  crossed 
breeds  so  different  in  size  as  a 
dray-horse  and  Norwegian  pony: 
see  A.  Walker  on  '  Intermar- 
riage,' 1838,   p.  205. 

1*  •  Nat.  Librarv,  Horses,'  vol. 
xii.  p.  208. 

i^Gervais,  'Hist.  Nat.  Mamm.,' 
tom.  ii.  p.  143.  Owen.  '  British 
Fossil    Mammals,'    p.    383. 

i«  •  Kenntniss  der  fossilen 
Pferde,'  1863,  s.  131. 

17  •  Comptes  rendus,'  18Gfi,  p. 
485,  and  '  Journal  de  I'Anat.  et 
de  la  Phys.,'  Mai,  1808. 


52 


HORSES. 


Chap.  II. 


he  has  proved  that  two  distinct  species  have  been  domesti- 
cated, one  in  the  East,  and  one  in  North  Africa;  and  that 
these  differed  in  the  number  of  their  lumbar  vertebra  and 
in  various  other  parts;  but  M.  Sanson  seems  to  believe  that 
osteolog'ical  characters  are  subject  to  very  little  variation, 
which  is  certainly  a  mistake.  At  present  no  aboriginal  or 
truly  wild  horse  is  positively  known  to  exist;  for  it  is  com- 
monly believed  that  the  wild  horses  of  the  East  are  escaped 
domestic  animals.'^  If  therefore  our  domestic  breeds  are 
descended  from  several  species  or  natural  races,  all  have  be- 
come extinct  in  the  wild  state. 

With  respect  to  the  causes  of  the  modifications  which 
horses  have  undergone,  the  conditions  of  life  seem  to  pro- 
duce a  considerable  direct  effect.  Mr.  D.  Forbes,  who  has 
had  excellent  opportunities  of  comparing  the  horses  of  Spain 
with  those  of  South  America,  informs  me  that  the  horses  of 
Chile,  which  have  lived  under  nearly  the  same  conditions  as 
their  progenitors  in  Andalusia,  remain  unaltered,  whilst  the 
Pampas  horses  and  the  Puno  ponies  are  considerably  modi- 
fied. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  horses  become  greatly 
reduced  in  size  and  altered  in  appearance  by  living  on  moun- 
tains and  islands;  and  this  apparently  is  due  to  want  of 
nutritious  or  varied  food.  Every  one  knows  how  small  and 
rugged  the  ponies  are  on  the  Northern  islands  and  on  the 
mountains  of  Europe.  Corsica  and  Sardinia  have  their  na- 
tive ponies;  and  there  were,^''  or  still  are,  on  some  islands  on 
the  coast  of  Virginia,  ponies  like  those  of  the  Shetland 
Islands,  which  are  believed  to  have  originated  through  ex- 
posure to  unfavourable  conditions.  The  Puno  ponies,  which 
inhabit  the  lofty  regions  of  the  Cordillera,  are,  as  I  hear 
from  Mr.  D.  Forbes,  strange  little  creatures,  very  unlike  their 
Spanish  progenitors.  Further  south,  in  the  Falkland  Islands, 
the  offspring  of  the  horses  imported  in  1764  have  already 
so  much  deteriorated  in  size  ^**  and  strength  that   they   are 


18  Mr.  W.  C.  L.  Martin  ('  The 
Horse,'  1845.  p.  34),  in  arguing 
against  the  belief  that  the  wild 
Eastern  horses  are  merely  feral, 
has  remarked  on  the  improbabil- 
ity of  man  in  ancient  times  hav- 
ing extirpated  a  species  in  a  re- 
gion where  it  can  now  exist  in 
numbers. 


19  '  Transact.  INIaryland  Acad- 
emy,' vol.  i.  part  i.  p.  28. 

-0  Mr.  Mackinnon  on  '  The 
Falkland  Islands.'  p.  25.  The  av- 
erage height  of  the  Falkland 
horse  is  said  to  be  14  hands  2 
inches.  See,  also,  my  '  Journal  ot 
Researches.' 


Chap.  II.  THEIR  VARIATION.  53 

unfitted  for  catching  wild  cattle  with  the  lasso ;  so  that  fresh 
horses  have  to  be  brought  for  this  purpose  from  La  Plata  at 
a  great  expense.  The  reduced  size  of  the  horses  bred  on 
both  southern  and  northern  islands,  and  on  several  moun- 
tain-chains, can  hardly  have  been  caused  by  the  cold,  as  a 
similar  reduction  has  occurred  on  the  Virginian  and  Medi- 
terranean islands.  The  horse  can  withstand  intense  cold, 
for  wild  troops  live  on  the  plains  of  Siberia  under  lat.  5(5°,"' 
and  aboriginally  the  horse  must  have  inhabited  countries 
annually  covered  with  snow,  for  he  long  retains  the  instinct 
of  scraping  it  away  to  get  at  the  herbage  beneath.  The  wild 
tarpans  in  the  East  have  this  instinct;  and  so  it  is,  as  I 
am  informed  by  Admiral  Sulivan,  with  the  horses  recently 
and  formerly  introduced  into  the  Falkland  Islands  from 
La  Plata,  some  of  which  have  run  wild;  this  latter  fact 
is  remarkable,  as  the  progenitors  of  these  horses  could 
not  have  followed  this  instinct  during  many  generations 
in  La  Plata.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wild  cattle  of  the 
Palklands  never  scrape  away  the  snow,  and  perish  when 
the  ground  is  long  covered.  In  the  northern  parts  of 
America  the  horses  descended  from  those  introduced  by 
the  Spanish  conquerors  of  Mexico,  have  the  same  habit, 
as  have  the  native  bisons,  but  not  so  the  cattle  introduced 
from  Europe." 

The  horse  can  flourish  under  intense  heat  as  well  as 
under  intense  cold,  for  he  is  known  to  come  to  the  highest 
perfection,  though  not  attaining  a  large  size,  in  Arabia  and 
northern  Africa.  Much  humidity  is  apparently  more  in- 
jurious to  the  horse  than  heat  or  cold.  Li  the  Falkland 
Islands,  horses  suffer  much  from  the  dampness;  and  this 
circumstance  may  perhaps  partly  account  for  the  singular 
fact  that  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,'^  over  an 
enormous  and  humid  area,  in  Ava,  Pegu,  Siam,  the  Malayan 
archipelago,  the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  and  a  large  part  of  China, 

21  Pallas,    '  Aot.    Acad.    St.    Pe-  -^  Mr.  J.  H.  Moor.   '  Notices  of 

tersbursh,'    1777,    part    ii.   p.    26.5.  the    Indian    Archipelago.'     Smga- 

AVith     respect     to     the     tarpans  pore,   1837,   p.   189.     A   pony   from 

scraping  awav  the  snow,  see  Col.  .Tava      was      sent      ('  Athcnannn.* 

Hamilton    Smith    in    "  Nat.    Lib.,'  1842,    p.    718)    to   the    (}iieen   only 

vol.  xii.   p.   If)."*.  28  inches  in  height.     For  the  Loo 

-Franklin's'   'Narrative,'    vol.  Choo  Islands,  sec  Beechey's  '  Voy- 

i.  p.  87;  note  by  Sir  J.  Richardson.  age,'  4th  edit.,  vol.   i.  p.  499. 


M 


HORSES. 


Chap.  IL 


210  full-sized  horse  is  found.  When  we  advance  as  far  east- 
ward as  Japan,  the  horse  reacquires  his  full  size/* 

With  most  of  our  domesticated  animals,  some  breeds  are 
kept  on  account  of  their  curiosity  or  beauty;  but  the  horse 
is  valued  almost  solely  for  its  utility.  Hence  semi-monstrous 
breeds  are  not  preserved ;  and  probably  all  the  existing  breeds 
have  been  slowly  formed  either  by  the  direct  action  of  the 
conditions  of  life,  or  through  the  selection  of  individual  dif- 
ierences.  No  doubt  semi-monstrous  breeds  might  have 
been  formed :  thus  Mr.  Waterton  records "  the  case  of  a 
mare  which  produced  successively  three  foals  without  tails; 
so  that  a  tailless  race  might  have  been  formed  like  the  tail- 
less races  of  dogs  and  cats.  A  Russian  breed  of  horses  is 
said  to  have  curled  hair,  and  Azara '''  relates  that  in  Paraguay 
horses  are  occasionally  born,  but  are  generally  destroyed, 
with  hair  like  that  on  the  head  of  a  negro;  and  this  peculi- 
arity is  transmitted  even  to  half-breeds :  it  is  a  curious 
case  of  correlation  that  such  horses  have  short  manes  and 
tails,  and  their  hoofs  are  of  a  peculiar  shape  like  those  of 
a  mule. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  that  the  long-continued 
selection  of  qualities  serviceable  to  man  has  been  the  chief 
agent  in  the  formation  of  the  several  breeds  of  the  horse. 
Look  at  a  dray-horse,  and  see  how  well  adapted  he  is  to  draw 
heavy  weights,  and  how  unlike  in  appearance  to  any  allied 
wild  animal.  The  English  race-horse  is  known  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  commingled  blood  of  Arabs,  Turks,  and 
Barbs;  but  selection,  which  was  carried  on  during  very  early 
times  in  England,'^  together  with  training,  have  made  him  a 
very  diiferent  animal  from  his  parent-stocks.  As  a  writer  in 
India,  who  evidently  knows  the  pure  Arab  well,  asks,  who 
now,  "  looking  at  our  present  breed  of  race-horses,  could  have 
conceived  that  they  were  the  result  of  the  union  of  the  Arab 
horse  and  African  mare  ?  "  The  improvement  is  so  marked 
that  in  running  for  the  Goodwood  Cup  "  the  first  descendants 


=*  J.  Crawford,  '  History  of  the 
Horse:'  '  Journal  of  Royal  United 
Service  Institution,'   vol.   iv. 

25  '  Essays  on  Natural  History,' 
2nd   series,    p.    161. 

-«  '  Quadrnpedes  du  Paraguay,' 
torn.    ii.   p.   333.     Dr.   Canfield  in- 


forms me  that  a  breed  with  curly 
hair  was  formed  by  selection  at 
Los  Angeles  in  North  America. 

2"  See  the  evidence  on  this  head 
in  '  Land  and  Water  '  May  2nd, 
18G8. 


Chap.  II. 


THEIR  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


55. 


of  Arabian,  Turkish,  and  Persian  horses,  are  allowed  a  dis- 
count of  18  lbs.  weight;  and  when  both  parents  are  of  these 
countries  a  discount  of  36  lbs.""'  It  is  notorious  that  the 
Arabs  have  long  been  as  careful  about  the  pedigree  of  their 
horses  as  we  are,  and  this  implies  great  and  continued  care 
in  breeding.  Seeing  what  has  been  done  in  England  by 
careful  breeding,  can  we  doubt  that  the  Arabs  must  likewise 
have  produced  during  the  course  of  centuries  a  marked  effect 
on  the  qualities  of  their  horses?  But  we  may  go  much  far- 
ther back  in  time,  for  in  the  Bible  we  hear  of  studs  carefully 
kept  for  breeding,  and  of  horses  imported  at  high  prices 
from  various  countries.'"*  We  may  therefore  conclude  that,, 
whether  or  not  the  various  existing  breeds  of  the  horse  have 
proceeded  from  one  or  more  aboriginal  stocks,  yet  that  a  great 
amount  of  change  has  resulted  from  the  direct  action  of  the 
conditions  of  life,  and  probably  a  still  greater  amount  from 
the  long-continued  selection  by  man  of  slight  individual  dif- 
ferences. 

With  several  domesticated  quadrupeds  and  birds,  certain, 
coloured  marks  are  either  strongly  inherited  or  tend  to  re- 
appear after  having  been  lost  for  a  long  time.  As  this  sub- 
ject will  hereafter  be  seen  to  be  of  importance,  I  will  give 
a  full  account  of  the  colouring  of  horses.  All  English  breeds, 
however  unlike  in  size  and  appearance,  and  several  of  those 
in  India  and  the  Malay  archipelago,  present  a  similar  range 
and  diversity  of  colour.  The  English  race-horse,  however,, 
is  said  *°  never  to  be  dun-coloured ;  but  as  dun  and  cream- 
coloured  horses  are  considered  by  the  Arabs  as  worthless, 
"  and  fit  only  for  Jews  to  ride,"  '^  these  tints  may  have  been, 
removed  by  long-continued  selection.  Horses  of  every  col- 
our, and  of  such  widely  different  kinds  as  dray-horses,  cobs, 


=*^  Prof.  Low,  '  Domesticated 
Animals,'  p.  546.  Witli  respect  to 
the  writer  in  India,  see  '  India 
Sporting  Review,'  vol.  ii.  p.  ISl. 
As  Lawrence  has  remarked  ('  Tlie 
Horse,'  p.  9),  "  perliaps  no  in- 
stance has  ever  occurred  of  a 
three-part  bred  horse  (i.  e.  a  liorse, 
one  of  whose  grandparents  was 
of  impure  blood)  saving  his  dis- 
tance in  running  two  miles  with 
thoroughbred  racers."  Some  few 
instances  are  on  record  of  seven- 


eighths   racers   having   been   suc- 
cessful. 

-3  Prof.  Gervais  (in  his  '  Hist. 
Nat.  Mamni..'  tom.  ii.  p.  14  4)  has- 
collected  many  facts  on  this  head. 
For  instance,  Solomon  (Kings,  B. 
i.  ch.  X.  V.  28)  bought  horses  in. 
Egvpt  at  a   high  price. 

30  .  The  Field,'  Juiv  13th,  1861^ 
p.  42. 

»i  E.  Vernon  Harcourt,  '  Sport- 
ing in  Algeria,'  p.  2G. 


56 


HORSES. 


Chap.  II. 


and  ponies,  are  all  occasionally  dappled, "  in  the  same  manner 
£LS  is  so  conspicuous  with  grey  horses.  This  fact  does  not 
throw  any  clear  light  on  the  colouring  of  the  aboriginal  horse, 
but  is  a  case  of  analogous  variation,  for  even  asses  are  some- 
times dappled,  and  I  have  seen,  in  the  British  Museum,  a 
hybrid  from  the  ass  and  zebra  dappled  on  its  hinder  quar- 
ters. By  the  expression  analogous  variation  (and  it  is  one 
that  I  shall  often  have  occasion  to  use)  I  mean  a  variation 
-occurring  in  a  species  or  variety  which  resembles  a  normal 
character  in  another  and  distinct  species  or  variety.  Analo- 
gous variations  may  arise,  as  will  be  explained  in  a  future 
-chapter,  from  two  or  more  forms  with  a  similar  constitution 
having  been  exposed  to  similar  conditions — or  from  one  of  two 
forms  having  reacquired  through  reversion  a  character  in- 
lierited  by  the  other  form  from  their  common  progenitor, — or 
from  both  forms  having  reverted  to  the  same  ancestral  charac- 
ter. We  shall  immediately  see  that  horses  occasionally  exhibit 
a  tendency  to  become  striped  over  a  large  part  of  their  bodies ; 
and  as  w^e  know"  that  in  the  varieties  of  the  domestic  cat  and 
in  several  feline  species  stripes  readily  pass  into  spots  and 
cloudy  marks — even  the  cubs  of  the  uniformly-coloured  lion 
being  spotted  with  dark  marks  on  a  lighter  ground — we  may 
suspect  that  the  dappling  of  the  horse,  which  has  been  no- 
ticed by  some  authors  with  surprise,  is  a  modification  or 
vestige  of  a  tendency  to  become  striped. 

This  tendency  in  the  horse  to  become  striped  is  in  several  re- 
-speets  an  interesting  fact.  Horses  of  all  colours,  of  the  most  di- 
verse breeds,  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  often  liave  a  dark 
•stripe  extending  along  the  spine,  from  the  mane  to  the  tail;  but 
this  is  so  common  that  I  need  enter  into  no  particidars.^^  Occa- 
sionally horses  are  transversely  barred  on  the  legs,  chiefly  on  the 
under  side;  and  more  rarely  they  have  a  distinct   stripe  on  the 


3-  I  state  this  from  my  own 
-observations  made  during  several 
years  on  the  colours  of  horses. 
I  have  seen  cream-colored,  liffht- 
dun  and  moiise-dnn  horses  dap- 
pled, which  I  mention  because  it 
nas  been  stated  (Martin.  '  History 
of  the  Horse,'  p  134)  that  duns 
are  never  dappled.  Martin  (p. 
■205)  refers  to  dappled  asses.  In 
the  '  Farrier  '  (London,  1828,  pp. 
4i53.  4.55)  there  are  some  good  re- 
marks on  the  dappling  of  horses; 


and    likewise    in    Col.     Hamilton 
Smith  on   •  The  Horse.' 

23  Some  details  are  given  in 
*  The  Farrier.'  1828,  pp.  4.52,  455. 
One  of  the  smallest  ponies  I  ever 
saw,  of  the  colour  of  a  mouse, 
had  a  conspicuous  spinal  stripe. 
A  small  Indian  chestnut  pony  had 
the  same  stripe,  as  had  a  remark- 
ably heavy  chestnut  cart-horse. 
Race-horses  often  have  the  spinal 
stripe. 


Chap.  II.  THEIR   COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


57 


shoulder,  like  that  on  the  shoulder  of  the  ass,  or  a  broad  dark 
patch  representing  a  stripe.  Before  entering  on  any  details  1  must 
premise  that  the  term  dun-coloured  is  vague,  and  includes  three 
groups  of  colours,  viz.,  that  between  cream-colour  and  reddish- 
brown,  which  graduates  into  light-bay  or  light-chestnut— this,  I  be- 
lieve, is  often  called  fallow-dun;  secondly,  leaden  or  slate-colour 
or  mouse-dun,  which  graduates  into  an  ash-colour;  and,  lastlv, 
dark-dun,  between  brown  and  black.  In  England  I  have  exam- 
ined a  rather  large,  lightly-built,  fallow-dun  Devonshire  pony  (Fig. 
1),  with  a  conspicuous  stripe  along  the  back,  with  liglit  transverse 
stripes  on  the  under  sides  of  its  front  legs,  and  with  four  parallel 
stripes  on  each  shoulder.  Of  these  four  stripes  the  posterior  one 
was  very  minute  and  faint;  the  anterior  one,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  long  and  broad,  but  interrupted  in  the  middle,  and  truncated' 
at  its  lower  extremity,  with  the  anterior  angle  produced  into  a 
long  tapering  point.     I  mention  this  latter  fact  because  the  shoul- 


vs^vV^^^V**^^''^ 


tvH.. 


A: 


Fig.  1. — Dun  Devonshire  Pony,  with  shoulder,  spinal,  and  leg  stripes. 

der-stripe  of  the  ass  occasionally  presents  exactly  the  same  ap- 
pearance. I  have  had  an  outline  and  description  sent  to  me  of  a 
small,  purely-bred,  light  fallow-dun  Welsh  pony,  with  a  spinal 
stripe,  a  single  transverse  stripe  on  each  leg,  and  three  shoulder- 
stripes;  the  posterior  stripe  corresponding  with  that  on  the  shoul- 
der of  the  ass  was  the  longest,  whilst  the  two  anterior  parallel 
stripes,  arising  from  the  mane,  decreased  in  length,  in  a  reversed 
manner  as  compared  Avith  the  shoulder-stripes  on  the  above- 
described  Devonshire  pony.  I  have  seen  a  bright  fallow-dun  cob, 
with  its  front  legs  transversely  barred  on  the  under  sides  in  the 
most  conspicuous  manner;  also  a  dark-leaden  mouse-coloured  pony 
with  similar  leg  stripes,  but  much  less  conspicuous:  also  a  bright 
fallow-dun  colt,   fully  three-parts  thoroughbred,   with   very   plain 


58  HORSES.  Chap.  IL 

transverse  stripes  on  the  legs;  also  a  ehestnut-dun  cart-horse  with 
a  conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  with  distinct  traces  of  shoulder-stripes, 
but  none  on  the  legs;  I  could  add  other  cases.  My  son  made  a 
sketch  for  me  of  a  large,  heavy,  Belgian  cart-horse,  of  a  fallow- 
dun,  with  a  conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  traces  of  leg-stripes,  and 
with  two  parallel  (three  inches  apart)  stripes  about  seven  or  eight 
inches  in  length  on  both  shoulders,  I  have  seen  another  rattier 
light  cart-horse,  of  a  dirty  dark  cream-colour,  with  striped  legs, 
and  on  one  shoulder  a  large'  ill-defined  dark  cloudy  patch,  and  on 
the  opposite  shoulder  two  parallel  faint  stripes.  All  the  cases  yet 
mentioned  are  duns  of  various  tints;  but  Mr.  W.  W.  Edwards  has 
seen  a  nearly  thoroughbred  chestnut  horse  which  had  the  spinal 
stripe,  and  distinct  bars  on  the  legs;  and  I  have  seen  two  bay  car- 
riage-horses with  black  spinal  stripes;  one  of  these  horses  had  on 
each  shoulder  a  light  shoulder-stripe,  and  the  other  had  a  broad 
black  ill-defined  stripe,  running  obliquely  half-way  down  each 
shoulder;  neither  had  leg-stripes. 

The  most  interesting  case  which  I  have  met  with  occurred  in  a 
colt  of  my  own  breeding,  A  bay  mare  (descended  from  a  dark- 
brown  Flemish  mare  by  a  light  grey  Turcoman  horse)  was  put  to 
Hercules,  a  thoroughbred  dark  bay,  whose  sire  (Kingston)  and 
dam  were  both  bays.  The  colt  ultimately  turned  out  brown;  but 
when  only  a  fortnight  old  it  was  a  dirty  bay,  shaded  with  mouse- 
grey,  and  in  parts  Avith  a  yellowish  tint:  it  had  only  a  trace  of 
the  spinal  stripe,  with  a  few  obscure  transverse  bars  on  the  legs; 
but  almost  the  whole  body  was  marked  with  very  narrow  dark 
stripes,  in  most  parts  so  obscure  as  to  be  visible  only  in  certain 
lights,  like  the  stripes  which  may  be  seen  on  black  kittens.  These 
stripes  were  distinct  on  the  hind-quarters,  where  they  diverged 
from  the  spine,  and  pointed  a  little  forwards;  many  of  them  as 
they  diverged  became  a  little  branched,  exactly  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  some  zebrine  species.  The  stripes  were  plainest  on  the 
forehead  between  tlie  ears,  where  they  formed  a  set  of  pointed 
arches,  one  under  the  other,  decreasing  in  size  downwards  towards 
the  muzzle;  exactlv  similar  marks  may  be  seen  on  the  forehead 
of  the  quagga  and  Burchell's  zebra.  When  this  foal  was  two  or 
three  months  old  all  the  stripes  entirely  disappeared.  I  have  seen 
similar  marks  on  the  forehead  of  a  fully  grown,  fallow-dun,  cob- 
like horse,  having  a  conspicuous  spinal  stripe,  and  with  its  front 
legs  well  barred. 

In  Norsvay  the  colour  of  the  native  horse  or  pony  is  dun,  vary- 
ing from  almost  cream-colour  to  dark-mouse  dun;  and  an  animal 
is  not  considered  purely  bred  unless  it  has  the  spinal  and  leg- 
stripes,^*  My  son  estimated  that  about  a  third  of  the  ponies  which 
he  saw  there  had  striped  legs;  he  counted  seven  stripes  on  the 
fore-legs  and  t^^'o   on  the  hind-legs  of  one  pony;  only  a  few  of 

^*  I  have  received  information,  marck,  on  the  colours  of  the  Nor- 

through  the  kindness  of  tlie  Con-  wep:ian    ponies.     See    also     '  The 

sul-General,     Mr.     .7,     R,     Crowe,  Field,'   1861,   p,   431. 
from  Prof,  Boeck,  Rasck,  and  Es- 


Chap.  II.  THEIR  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES.  59 

them  exhibited  traces  of  shoulder  stripes;  but  I  have  heard  of  a 
cob  imported  from  Norway  which  had  the  shoulder  as  well  as  the 
other  stripes  well  developed.  Colonel  H.  Smith  "  alludes  to  dun- 
horses  with  the  spinal  stripe  in  the  Sierras  of  Spain;  and  the  horses 
originally  derived  from  Spain,  in  some  parts  of  South  America, 
are  now  duns.  Sir.  W.  Elliot  informs  me  that  he  inspected  a  herd 
of  300  South  American  horses  imported  into  Madras,  and  many 
of  these  had  transverse  stripes  on  the  legs  and  short  shoulder- 
stripes;  the  most  strongly  marked  individual,  of  which  a  coloured 
drawing  was  sent  me,  was  a  mouse-dun,  with  the  shoulder-stripes 
slightly  forked. 

In  the  North-Western  parts  of  India  striped  horses  of  more 
than  one  breed  are  apparently  commoner  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  world;  and  I  have  received  information  respecting  them 
from  several  officers,  especially  from  Colonel  Poole,  Colonel  Curtis, 
Major  Campbell,  I'rigadier  St.  John,  and  others.  The  Kattywar 
horses  are  often  fifteen  or  sixteen  hands  in  height,  and  are  well 
but  lightly  built.  They  are  of  all  colours,  but  the  several  kinds 
of  duns  prevail;  and  these  are  so  generally  striped,  that  a  horse 
without  stripes  is  not  considered  pure.  Colonel  Poole  believes  that 
all  the  duns  have  the  spinal  stripe,  the  leg-stripes  are  gener- 
ally present,  and  he  thinks  that  about  half  the  horses  have  the 
shoulder-stripe;  this  stripe  is  sometimes  double  or  treble  on  both 
shoulders.  Colonel  Poole  has  often  seen  stripes  on  the  cheeks  and 
sides  of  the  nose.  He  has  seen  stripes  on  the  grey  and  bay  Katty- 
wars  when  first  foaled,  but  they  soon  faded  away.  I  have  re- 
ceived other  accounts  of  cream-coloured,  bay,  brown,  and  grey 
Kattywar  horses  being  striped.  Eastward  of  India,  the  Shan 
(north  of  Burmah)  ponies,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Blyth,  have 
spinal,  leg,  and  shoulder  stripes.  Sir  W.  Elliot  informs  me  that 
he  saw  two  bay  Pegu  ponies  with  leg-stripes.  Burmese  and  Jav- 
anese ponies  are  frequently  dun-coloured,  and  have  the  three  kinds 
of  stripes,  "in  the  same  degree  as  in  England."^*"'  Mr.  Swinhoe 
informs  me  that  he  examined  two  light-dun  ponies  of  two  Chinese 
breeds,  viz.  those  of  Shanghai  and  Amoy;  both  had  the  spinal 
stripe,  and  the  latter  an  indistinct  shoulder-stripe. 

We  thus  see  that  in  all  parts  of  the  world  breeds  of  the  horse 
as  different  as  possible,  when  of  a  dun-colour  (including  under  this 
term  a  wide  range  of  tint  from  cream  to  dusty  black),  and  rarely 
when  almost  w^liite  tinged  with  yellow%  grey,  bay,  and  chestnut, 
have  the  several  above-specified  'stripes.  Horses  which  are  of  a 
yellow  colour  with  white  mane  and  tail,  and  which  are  sometimes 
called  duns,  I  have  never  seen  with  stripes." 

From  reasons  which  will  be  apparent  in  the  chapter  on  Rever- 
sion,   I    have    endeavoured,    but    with    poor    success,    to    discover 

"Col.    Hamilton    Smith,    'Nat.  informs  me  that  he  saw  in  Java 

Lib   '   vol    xii    p    275.  a    dun     and    cla.v-coloured    horse 

38  Mr.  G.  Ciark,  in  *  Annal  and  with  spinal  and  leg  stripes.  ^ 
Mag.  of  Nat.  History,'  2nd  series,  ^t  sf,.p,  also,  on  this  point.     The 

vol.  ii.,  1848,  p.  363.    Mr.  Wallace  Field,'  July  2ith,  1861,  p.  Ul. 


60  HORSES.  Chap.  II. 

whether  duns,  which  are  so  much  oftener  striped  than  other  col- 
oured horses,  are  ever  produced  from  the  crossing  of  two  horses, 
jieitlier  of  which  are  duns.  ISIost  persons  to  whom  I  liave  applied 
believe  that  one  parent  must  be  dun;  and  it  is  generally  asserted, 
that,  when  this  is  the  case,  the  dun-colour  and  the  stripes  are 
strongly  inherited.^*  One  case,  however,  has  fallen  under  my  own 
observation  of  a  foal  fiom  a  black  mare  bv  a  bav  horse,  which 
when  fully  grown  was  a  dark  fallow-dun  and  had  a  narrow  but 
plain  spinal  stripe.  Hofacker  ^'-^  gives  two  instances  of  mouse-duns 
(Mausrapp)  being  produced  from  two  parents  of  dill'erent  colours 
and  neither  duns. 

The  stripes  of  all  kinds  are  generally  plainer  in  the  foal  than 
in  the  adult  horse,  being  commonly  lost  at  the  first  shedding  of 
the  hair.^"  Colonel  Poole  believes  that  "  the  stripes  in  the  Katty- 
war  breed  are  plainest  when  the  colt  is  first  foaled;  they  then  be- 
come less  and  less  distinct  till  after  the  first  coat  is  shed,  when 
thev  come  out  as  stronolv  as  before;  but  certainly  often  fade 
away  as  the  age  of  the  horse  increases."  Two  other  accounts  con- 
firm this  fading  of  the  stripes  in  old  horses  in  India.  One  writer, 
on  the  other  hand,  states  that  colts  are  often  born  without  stripes, 
but  that  they  appear  as  the  colt  grows  older.  Three  authorities 
affirm  that  in  Xor^^ay  the  stripes  are  less  plain  in  the  foal  than 
in  the  adult.  In  the  case  described  by  me  of  the  young  foal  which 
was  narrowly  striped  over  nearly  all  its  body,  there  was  no  doubt 
about  the  early  and  complete  disappearance  of  the  stripes.  Mr. 
"\V.  W.  Edv/ards  examined  for  me  twentv-two  foals  of  race-horses, 
^nd  twelve  had  the  spinal  stripe  more  or  less  plain;  this  fact,  and 
«ome  other  accounts  which  I  have  received,  lead  me  to  believe  that 
the  spinal  stripe  often  disappears  in  the  English  race-horse  when 
old.  With  natural  species,  the  young  often  exhibit  characters 
which  disappear  at  maturity. 

The  stripes  are  variable  in  colour,  but  are  always  darker 
than  the  rest  of  the  body.  They  do  not  by  any  means  always 
■coexist  on  the  different  parts  of  the  body:  the  legs  may  be 
striped  without  any  shoulder-stripe,  or  the  converse  case, 
which  is  rarer,  may  occur;  but  I  have  never  heard  of  either  ( 
shoulder  or  leg-stripes  without  the  spinal  stripe.  The  latter  j 
is  by  far  the  commonest  of  all  the  stripes,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  as  it  characterises  the  other  seven  or  eight  species 
•of  the  genus.  It  is  remarkable  that  so  trifling  a  character  as 
the  shoulder-stripe  being  double  or  triple  should  occur  in 
such  different  breeds  as  Welsh  and  Devonshire  ponies,  the 
Shan  pony,  heavy  cart-horses,  light  South  American  horses, 

38 'The  Field,'  ISRl.  4.31.493.  r,45.  ^o  Von      Nathusius.      '  Vortrage 

39  '  Ueber    die    Eigenscliaften,'        iiber  Viehzucht,'  1872,  135. 
&c.,  1828,  s.  13,  14. 


Chap.  II. 


THEIR  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES. 


61 


and  the  lanky  Kattj-^var  breed.  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith 
believes  that  one  of  his  five  supposed  primitive  stocks  was 
dun-coloured  and  striped;  and  that  the  stripes  in  all  the 
other  breeds  result  from  ancient  crosses  with  this  one  primi- 
tive dun;  but  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  different  breeds 
living  in  such  distant  quarters  of  the  world  should  all  have 
been  crossed  w^ith  any  one  aboriginally  distinct  stock.  jSTor 
have  we  any  reason  to  believe  that  the  effects  of  a  cross  at  a 
very  remote  period  would  be  propagated  for  so  many  gen- 
erations as  is  implied  on  this  view. 

With  respect  to  the  primitive  colour  of  the  horse  having 
been  dun,  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith"  has  collected  a  large 
body  of  evidence  showing  that  this  tint  was  common  in  the 
East  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Alexander,  and  that  the  wild 
horses  of  Western  Asia  and  Eastern  Europe  now  are,  or  re- 
cently M'ere,  of  various  shades  of  dun.  It  seems  that  not  very 
long  ago  a  wild  breed  of  dun-coloured  horses  with  a  spinal 
stripe  w^as  preserved  in  the  royal  parks  in  Prussia.  I  hear 
from  Hungary  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  look  at 
the  duns  wdth  a  spinal  strijDe  as  the  aboriginal  stock,  and 
so  it  is  in  ISTorway.  Dun-coloured  ponies  are  not  rare  in 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Devonshire,  Wales,  and  Scotland, 
where  the  aboriginal  breed  would  have  the  best  chance  of 
being  preserved.  In  South  America  in  the  time  of  Azara, 
when  the  horse  had  been  feral  for  about  250  years,  90  out  of 
a  100  horses  were  "  bai-chatains,"  and  the  remaining  ten 
were  "  zains,"  that  is  brown ;  not  more  than  one  in  2000 
being  black.  In  North  America  the  feral  horses  show  a 
strong  tendency  to  become  roans  of  various  shades;  but  in 
certain  parts,  as  I  hear  from  Dr.  Canfield,  they  are  mostly 
duns  and  striped." 


"  '  Nat.  Library,'  vol.  xii. 
(1S41),  pp.  109.  15<3,  to  1(53,  280, 
281.  Cream-colonr,  passing  into 
Isal)ella  (?.  c.  the  colour  of  the 
dirty  linen  of  Qneen  Isabella), 
seems  to  have  been  common  in 
ancient  times.  Ser,  also,  Pallas' 
account  of  the  wild  horses  of  the 
East,  who  speaks  of  dun  and 
brown  as  the  prevalent  colours. 
In  the  Icelandic  sairas.  which 
were  committed  to  writinc:  in  the 
twelfth  century,  dun-coloured 
horses  with  a  black  spinal  stripe 


are  mentioned:  ser  Dasent's  trans- 
lation, vol.   i.  p.  ini). 

•*-  Azara,  '  Quadrupedes  du 
Paraguay,'  torn.  ii.  p.  307.  In 
North  America.  Catlin  (vol.  li.  p. 
57)  describes  the  wild  horses,  be- 
lieved to  have  descended  from  the 
Spanish  horses  of  Mexico,  as  of 
all  colours,  black,  grey,  roan,  and 
roan  pied  with  sorrel.  F.  Mi- 
chaux  ('  Travels  in  North  Amer- 
ica,' Eng.  translat..  p.  23."))  de- 
scribes two  wild  horses  from 
Mexico    as    roan.      In    the    Falk- 


62  ASSES.  Chap.  IL 

In  the  following  chapters  on  the  Pigeon  we  shall  see  that 
a  blue  bird  is  occasionally  produced  by  pure  breeds  of 
various  colours  and  that  when  this  occurs  certain  black 
marks  invariably  appear  on  the  wings  and  tail;  so  again, 
when  variously  coloured  breeds  are  crossed,  blue  birds  with 
the  same  black  marks  are  frequently  produced.  We  shall  fur- 
ther see  that  these  facts  are  explained  by,  and  aft'ord  strong 
evidence  in  favour  of,  the  view  that  all  the  breeds  are  de- 
scended from  the  rock-pigeon,  or  Columha  livia,  which  is 
thus  coloured  and  marked.  But  the  appearance  of  the  stripes 
on  the  various  breeds  of  the  horse,  when  of  a  dun  colour, 
does  not  afford  nearly  such  good  evidence  of  their  descent 
from  a  single  primitive  stock  as  in  the  case  of  the  pigeon : 
because  no  horse  certainly  wild  is  known  as  a  standard  of 
comparison;  because  the  stripes  when  they  appear  are  vari- 
able in  character ;  because  there  is  far  from  sufficient  evidence 
that  the  crossing  of  distinct  breeds  produces  stripes,  and 
lastly,  because  all  the  species  of  the  genus  Equus  have  the 
spinal  stripe,  and  several  species  have  shoulder  and  leg 
stripes.  Xevertheless  the  similarity  in  the  most  distinct 
breeds  in  their  general  range  of  colour,  in  their  dappling, 
and  in  the  occasional  appearance,  especially  in  duns,  of  leg- 
stripes  and  of  double  or  triple  shoulder-stripes,  taken  to- 
gether, indicate  the  probability  of  the  descent  of  all  the  ex- 
isting races  from  a  single,  dun-coloured,  more  or  less  striped, 
primitive  stock,  to  which  our  horses  occasionally  revert. 

The  Ass. 

Four  species  of  Asses,  besides  three  zebras,  have  been  de- 
scribed by  naturalists.  There  is  now  little  doubt  that  our 
domesticated  animal  is  descended  from  the  Equus  tceniopus 
of  Abyssinia."  The  ass  is  sometimes  advanced  as  an  in- 
stance of  an  animal  domesticated,  as  we  know  by  the  Old 
Testament,  from  an  ancient  period,  which  has  varied  only  in 
a  very  slight  degree.     But  this  is  by  no  means  strictly  true; 

land  Islands,  where  the  horse  has  "  Dr.    Sclater,     in    '  Proc.    Zo- 

been   feral   only   between   60   and  olog.  Soc.,'  1862,  p.  164.    Dr.  Hart- 

70  years.    I    was   told    that    roans  mann  says(' Annalen  der  Landw.,' 

and"  iron-greys  were  the  prevalent  B.   xliv.   p.   222)   that  this  animal 

colours.     These  several  facts  show  in   its   wild    state   is    not   always 

that  horses  do  not  soon  revert  to  striped  across  the  legs, 
any  uniform  colour. 


I 


Chap.  II.  THEIR  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES.  63 

for  in  Syria  alone  there  are  four  breeds ;  **  first,  a  light  and 
graceful  animal,  with  an  agreeable  gait,  used  by  ladies; 
secondly,  an  Arab  breed  reserved  exclusively  for  the  saddle; 
thirdly,  a  stouter  animal  used  for  ploughing  and  various 
purposes;  and  lastly,  the  large  Damascus  breed,  with  a  pe- 
culiarly long  body  and  ears.  In  the  South  of  France  also 
there  are  several  breeds,  and  one  of  extraordinary  size,  some 
individuals  being  as  tall  as  full-sized  horses.  Although  the 
ass  in  England  is  by  no  means  uniform  in  appearance,  dis- 
tinct breeds  have  not  been  formed.  This  may  probably  be 
accounted  for  by  the  animal  being  kept  chiefly  by  poor  per- 
sons, who  do  not  rear  large  numbers,  nor  carefully  match  and 
select  the  young.  For,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter, 
the  ass  can  with  ease  be  greatly  improved  in  size  and  strength 
by  careful  selection,  combined  no  doubt  with  good  food; 
and  we  may  infer  that  all  its  other  characters  would  be 
equally  amenable  to  selection.  The  small  size  of  the  ass  in 
England  and  Northern  Europe  is  apparently  due  far  more  to 
want  of  care  in  breeding  than  to  cold;  for  in  Western  India, 
where  the  ass  is  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  by  some  of  the  lower 
castes,  it  is  not  much  larger  than  a  Newfoundland  dog,  "  be- 
ing generally  not  more  than  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches 
high."  *' 

The  ass  varies  greatly  in  colour;  and  its  legs,  especially 
the  fore-legs,  both  in  England  and  other  countries — for  in- 
stance, in  China — are  occasionally  barred  more  plainly  than 
those  of  dun-coloured  horses.  Thirteen  or  fourteen  trans- 
verse stripes  have  been  counted  on  both  the  fore  and  hind 
legs.  With  the  horse  the  occasional  appearance  of  leg- 
stripes  was  accounted  for  by  reversion  to  a  supposed  parent- 
form,  and  in  the  case  of  the  ass  we  may  confidently  believe 
in  this  explanation,  as  E.  tceniopus  is  known  to  be  barred, 
though  only  in  a  slight  degree,  and  not  quite  invariably. 
The  stripes  are  believed  to  occur  most  frequently  and  to  be 
plainest  on  the  legs  of  the  domestic  ass  during  early  youth,'"' 
as  likewise  occurs  with  the  horse.     The  shoulder-stripe,  which 

"  W.    C.    Martin,    '  History    of  Field   Sports.'   vol.    ii..   qiiotorl   by 

the  Horse,'  1845,   p.  207.  Martin,  p.  200. 

*5  Col     Sykes'     Cat.     of     Mam-  «  Blvth.      in      '  Charlcsworth's 

malia,    '  Proc.   Zooloj?.   Soc'   July  Ma/?,  of  Nat.  Hist..'  vol.  iv..  1S40, 

12th,  1831.    Williamson,  '  Oriental  p.  83.     I  have  also  been  assured 


64:  ASSES.  Chap.  II. 

is  so  eminently  characteristic  of  the  species,  is  nevertheless 
variable  in  breadth,  length,  and  manner  of  termination.  I 
have  measured  one  four  times  as  broad  as  another,  and  some 
more  than  twice  as  long  as  others.  In  one  light-grey  ass  the 
shoulder-stripe  was  only  six  inches  in  length,  and  as  thin 
as  a  piece  of  string;  and  in  another  animal  of  the  same  col- 
our there  was  only  a  dusky  shade  representing  a  stripe.  I 
have  heard  of  three  white  asses,  not  albinoes,  with  no  trace 
of  shoulder  or  spinal  stripes ;  *'  and  I  have  seen  nine  other 
asses  with  no  shoulder-stripe,  and  some  of  them  had  no  spinal 
stripe.  Three  of  the  nine  were  light-greys,  one  a  dark-grey, 
another  grey  passing  into  reddish-roan,  and  the  others  were 
brown,  two  being  tinted  on  parts  of  their  bodies  with  a 
reddish  or  hay  shade.  If  therefore  grey  and  reddish-brown 
asses  had  been  steadily  selected  and  bred  from,  the  shoulder- 
stripe  W'Ould  probably  have  been  lost  almost  as  generally  and 
completely  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse. 

The  shoulder  stripe  on  the  ass  is  sometimes  double,  and 
Mr.  Blyth  has  seen  even  three  or  four  parallel  stripes.**  I 
have  observed  in  ten  cases  shoulder-stripes  abruptly  truncated 
at  the  lower  end,  with  the  anterior  angle  produced  into  a  taper- 
ing point,  precisely  as  in  the  above  dun  Devonshire  pony.  I 
have  seen  three  cases  of  the  terminal  portion  abruptly  and 
angularly  bent;  and  have  seen  and  heard  of  four  cases  of 
a  distinct  though  slight  forking  of  the  stripe.  In  Syria,  Dr. 
Hooker  and  his  party  observed  for  me  no  less  than  five 
similar  instances  of  the  shoulder-stripe  plainly  bifurcating 
over  the  fore  leg.  In  the  common  mule  it  likewise  sometimes 
bifurcates.  When  I  first  noticed  the  forking  and  angular 
bending  or  the  shoulder-stripe,  I  had  seen  enough  of  the 
stripes  in  the  various  equine  species  to  feel  convinced  that 
even  a  character  so  unimportant  as  this  had  a  distinct  mean- 
ing, and  was  thus  led  to  attend  to  the  subject.  I  now  find 
that  in  the  E.  hurchellii  and  quagga,  the  stripe  which  corre- 
sponds w4th  the  shoulder-stripe  of  the  ass,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  stripes  on  the  neck,  bifurcate,  and  that  some  of  those 
near  the  shoulder  have  their  extremities  bent  angularly  back- 
by  a  breeder  that  this  is  the  *^  '  Journal  As.  Soc.  of  Benjral.' 
case.                                                              vol.  xxviii.,  1860,  p.  231.     Martin 

*''  One  case  is  Riven  by  Martin,        on  the  Horse,  p.  205. 
•  The  Horse,'  p.  205. 


Chap.  II.  THEIR  COLOURS  AND  STRIPES.  G5 

wards.  The  bifurcation  and  angular  bending  of  the  stripes, 
on  the  shoulders  apparently  are  connected  with  the  nearly 
upright  stripes  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  neck  changing 
their  direction  and  becoming  transverse  on  the  legs.  Final- 
ly, we  see  that  the  presence  of  shoulder,  leg,  and  spinal 
stripes  in  the  horse, — their  occasional  absence  in  the  ass, — 
the  occurrence  of  double  and  triple  shoulder-stripes  in  both 
animals,  and  the  similar  manner  in  which  these  stripes  ter- 
minate downwards, — are  all  cases  of  analogous  variation  in 
the  horse  and  ass.  These  cases  are  probably  not  due  to 
similar  conditions  acting  on  similar  constitutions,  but  to  a 
partial  reversion  in  colour  to  the  common  progenitor  of  the 
genus.  We  shall  hereafter  return  to  this  subject,  and  dis- 
cuss it  more  fully. 


-<«»I9 


66  DOMESTIC  PIGS.  Chap.  III. 


CHAPTEK   III. 

PIGS — CATTLE — SHEEP — GOATS. 

Pigs  belong  to  two  distinct  types,  Sus  scrofa  and  indicus — Torfschwein — 
Japan  pigs — Fertility  of  crossed  pigs — Changes  in  the  skull  of  the 
highly  cultivated  races — Convergence  of  character — Gestation — Solid- 
hoofed  swine — Curious  appendages  to  the  jaws — Decrease  in  size  of 
the  tusks — Young  pigs  longitudinally  striped — Feral  pigs — Crossed 
breeds. 

Cattle. — Zebu  a  distinct  species — European  cattle  probably  descended 
from  three  wild  forms — All  the  races  now  fertile  together — British 
park  cattle — On  the  colour  of  the  aboriginal  species — Constitutional 
differences — South  African  races — South  American  races — Niata  cattle 
— Origin  of  the  various  races  of  cattle. 

Sheep. — Remarkable  races  of — Variations  attached  to  the  male  sex — 
Adaptations  to  various  conditions — Gestation  of — Changes  in  the 
wool — Semi-monstrous  breeds. 

Goats. — Remarkable  variations  of. 

The  breeds  of  the  pig  have  recently  been  more  closely 
studied,  though  much  still  remains  to  be  done,  than  those  of 
almost  any  other  domesticated  animal.  This  has  been  effected 
by  Hermann  von  Nathusius  in  two  admirable  works,  espe- 
<3ially  in  the  later  one  on  the  Skulls  of  the  several  races,  and 
by  Riitimeyer  in  his  celebrated  Fauna  of  the  ancient  Swiss 
lake-dwellings.^  I^athusius  has  shown  that  all  the  known 
breeds  may  be  divided  into  two  great  groups :  one  resembling 
in  all  important  respects  and  no  doubt  descended  from  the 
<3ommon  wild  boar;  so  that  this  may  be  called  the  Sus  scrofa 
group.  The  other  group  diifers  in  several  important  and  con- 
stant osteological  characters;  its  wild  parent-form  is  un- 
known; the  name  given  to  it  by  Nathusius,  according  to  the 
law  of  priority,  is  Sus  indicus,  of  Pallas.  This  name  must 
now  be  followed,  though  an  unfortunate  one,  as  the  wild 
aboriginal  does  not  inhabit  India,  and  the  best-known  do- 
mesticated breeds  have  been  imported  from  Siam  and  China. 

1  Hermann  von  Nathusius,  'Die  Berlin,    1864.      Riitimeyer,     '  Die 

■Racen     fles     Sehweines,'     Berlin,  Fauna    der    Pfahlbauten,'    Basel, 

1860;    and     '  Vorstndien    fiir     Re-  1861. 
fichichte,'  «S:c.,   '  Schweineschadel, 


Chap.  III.  THEIR  PAREXTAGE.  67 

First  for  the  Sus  scrofa  breeds,  or  those  resembling  the 
common  wild  boar.  These  still  exist,  according*  to  Xathusius 
(Schweineschiidel,  s.  75),  in  various  parts  of  central  and 
northern  Europe;  formerly  every  kingdom,"  and  almost  every 
province  in  Britain,  possessed  its  own  native  breed ;  but  these 
are  now  ever;>^vhere  rapidly  disappearing,  being  replaced  by 
improved  breeds  crossed  with  the  S.  indicus  form.  The 
skull  in  the  breeds  of  the  S.  scrofa  type  resembles,  in  all 
important  respects,  that  of  the  European  wild  boar;  but  it 
has  become  (Schweineschadel,  s.  63-68)  higher  and  broader 
relatively  to  its  length;  and  the  hinder  part  is  more  upright. 
The  differences,  however,  are  all  variable  in  degree.  The 
breeds  which  thus  resemble  S.  scrofa  in  their  essential  skull- 
characters  diifer  conspicuously  from  each  other  in  other 
respects,  as  in  the  length  of  the  ears  and  legs,  curvature  of 
the  ribs,  colour,  hairiness,  size  and  proportions  of  the  body. 

The  wild  Sus  scrofa  has  a  wide  range,  namely,  Europe, 
!North  Africa,  as  identified  by  osteological  characters  by 
Kiitimeyer,  and  Hindostan,  as  similarly  identified  by  Xathu- 
sius. But  the  wild  boars  inhabiting  these  several  countries 
differ  so  much  from  each  other  in  external  characters,  that 
they  have  been  ranked  by  some  naturalists  as  specifically  dis- 
tinct. Even  within  Hindostan  these  animals,  according  to 
Mr.  Blyth,  form  very  distinct  races  in  the  different  districts; 
in  the  X.  Western  provinces,  as  I  am  informed  by  the  Rev. 
R.  Everest,  the  boar  never  exceeds  36  inches  in  height,  whilst 
in  Bengal  one  has  been  measured  44  inches  in  height.  In 
Europe,  Xorthern  Africa,  and  Hindostan,  domestic  pigs  have 
been  known  to  cross  with  the  wild  native  species;^  and  in 
Hindostan  an  accurate  observer,  Sir  Walter  Elliot,  after  de- 
scribing the  differences  between  wild  Indian  and  wild  Ger- 
man boars,  remarks  that  "  the  same  differences  are  per- 
ceptible  in  the  domesticated   individuals   of   the  two   coun- 

2  Nathusius,  '  Die  Racen  des  and  tame  swine,  srr  Burdach's 
Schweines,'  Berlin,  1860.  An  ex-  '  Pliysiology,'  and  Godron  '  De 
cellent  appendix  is  £civen  witli  I'Espece,'  torn.  i.  p.  oTo.  For 
references  to  published  and  trust-  Africa,  '  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d'Ac- 
worthy  drawings  of  the  breeds  of  cliniat.,'  torn.  iv.  p.  380.  For  In- 
each  country.  dia,     src     Xathusius,     '  Schweine- 

^  For     Eui'ope.     .srr     Beclistein,  schiidel,'  s.   14S. 
'  Naturjjesch.  Deutschlands.'  1801,  *  Sir    W.    Elliot.    Catalogue    of 

B.    i.    s.    50.",.       Several    accounts  Mnninialia,    '  Madras    Journal    of 

have  been   published   on   the   fer-  Lit.   and   Science,'   vol.   x.   p.   21t). 
tility  of  the  offspring  from  wild 

6 


68  DOMESTIC  PIGS.  Chap.  III. 

tries."  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  breeds  of  the 
Sus  scrofa  type  are  descended  from,  or  have  been  modified 
by  crossing  with,  forms  which  may  be  ranked  as  geographical 
races,  but  which,  according  to  some  naturalists,  ought  to 
be  ranked  as  distinct  species. 

Pigs  of  the  Sus  indicus  type  are  best  known  to  English- 
men under  the  form  of  the  Chinese  breed.  The  skull  of 
S.  indicus,  as  described  by  ISTathusius,  differs  from  that  of 
S.  scrofa  in  several  minor  respects,  as  in  its  greater  breadth 
and  in  some  details  in  the  teeth;  but  chiefly  in  the  short- 
ness of  the  lachrymal  bones,  in  the  greater  width  of  the  fore 
part  of  the  palate-bones,  and  in  the  divergence  of  the  pre- 
molar teeth.  It  deserves  especial  notice  that  these  latter 
characters  are  not  gained,  even  in  the  least  degree,  by  the 
domesticated  forms  of  S.  scrofa.  After  reading  the  remarks 
and  descriptions  given  by  ISTathusius,  it  seems  to  me  to  be 
merely  playing  with  words  to  doubt  whether  8.  indicus  ought 
to  be  ranked  as  a  species;  for  the  above-specified  differences 
are  more  strongly  marked  than  any  that  can  be  pointed  out 
between,  for  instance,  the  fox  and  the  wolf,  or  the  ass  and 
the  horse.  As  already  stated,  8.  indicus  is  not  known  in  a 
wild  state;  but  its  domesticated  forms,  according  to  ISTathu- 
sius, come  near  to  8.  vittatus  of  Java  and  some  allied  species. 
A  pig  found  M-ild  in  the  Aru  islands  (Schweineschadel,  s. 
169)  is  apparently  identical  with  8.  indicus;  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  this  is  a  truly  native  animal.  The  domesticated 
breeds  of  China,  Cochin-China,  and  Siam  belong  to  this 
type.  The  Roman  or  Neapolitan  breed,  the  Andalusian,  the 
Hungarian,  and  the  "  Krause  "  swine  of  ISTathusius,  inhabit- 
ing south-eastern  Europe  and  Turkey,  and  having  fine  curly 
hair,  and  the  small  Swiss  "  Biindtnerschwein  "  of  Riitimeyer, 
all  agree  in  their  more  important  skull-characters  with  8. 
indicus,  "and,  as  is  supposed,  have  all  been  largely  crossed 
with  this  form.  Pigs  of  this  type  have  existed  during  a 
long  period  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  for  a  figure 
(Schweineschadel,  s.  142)  closely  resembling  the  existing 
!N^eapolitan  pig  was  found  in  the  buried  city  of  Herculaneum. 

Piitimeyer  has  made  the  remarkable  discovery  that  there 
lived  contemporaneously  in  Switzerland,  during  the  Neo- 
lithic period,  two  domesticated  form,  the  8.  scrofa,  and  the 


I 


Chap.  III.  THEIR  VARIATION.  69 

S.  scrofa  palustris  or  Torfschwein.  Riitimeyer  perceived 
that  the  latter  approached  the  eastern  breeds,  and,  according 
to  Nathusius,  it  certainly  belong-s  to  the  S.  indicus  group; 
but  Riitimeyer  has  subsequently  shown  that  it  differs  in 
some  well-marked  characters.  This  author  was  formerly  con- 
vinced that  his  Torfschwein  existed  as  a  wild  animal  during 
the  first  part  of  the  Stone  period,  and  was  domesticated  during 
a  later  part  of  the  same  period.^  Nathusius,  whilst  he  fully 
admits  the  curious  fact  first  observed  by  Riitimeyer,  that  the 
bones  of  domesticated  and  wild  animals  can  be  distinguished 
by  their  different  aspect,  yet,  from  special  difficulties  in  the 
case  of  the  bones  of  the  pig  (Schweineschadel,  s.  147)  is  not 
convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  above  conclusion ;  and  Riiti- 
meyer himself  seems  now  to  feel  some  doubt.  Other  natural- 
ists have  also  argued  strongly  on  the  same  side  as  Nathusius.^ 
Several  breeds,  differing  in  the  proportions  of  the  body, 
in  the  length  of  the  ears,  in  the  nature  of  the  hair,  in  col- 
our, &c.,  come  under  the  S.  indicus  type.  Nor  is  this  sur- 
prising, considering  how  ancient  the  domestication  of  this 
form  has  been  both  in  Europe  and  in  China.  In  this  latter 
country  the  date  is  believed  by  an  eminent  Chinese  scholar^ 
to  go  back  at  least  4900  years  from  the  present  time.  This 
same  scholar  alludes  to  the  existence  of  many  local  varieties 
of  the  pig  in  China;  and  at  the  present  time  the  Chinese 
take  extraordinary  pains  in  feeding  and  tending  their  pigs, 
not  even  allowing  them  to  walk  from  place  to  place.^  Hence 
these  pigs,  as  Nathusius  has  remarked,^  display  in  an  emi- 
nent degree  the  characters  of  a  highly-cultivated  race,  and 
hence,  no  doubt,  their  high  value  in  the  improvement  of  our 
European  breeds.  Nathusius  makes  a  remarkable  statement 
(Schweineschadel,  s.  138),  that  the  infusion  of  the  tf,  or 
even  of  the  -^V  part  of  the  blood  of  S.  indicus  into  a  breed 
of  S.  scrofa,  is  sufficient  plainly  to  modify  the  skull  of  the 
latter  species.     This  singular  fact  may  perhaps  be  accounted 

5  '  Pfahlbauten,'      s.      163,      et  ^  Stan.    Julien.    Qiiotorl    b.v    de 

passim.  Blainville,     '  Osteograpbie,'    page 

«  See  J.  W.  Schiitz's  interesting  163. 
essay.    '  Zur  Kenntniss   des   Torf-  *  Ricbardson,    '  Pigs,  tbeir  Ori- 

scbweins,'  1868.      Tbis  aiitbor  be-  gin,'  &c.,  p.  26. 
lieves    tbat    the    Torfschwein    is  "  '  Die   Racen   des    Schweines, 

descended  from  a  distinct  species,  s.  47,  64. 
the  S.  sennariensis  of  Cent.  Africa. 


70  DOMESTIC  PIGS.  Chap.  III. 

for  by  several  of  the  chief  distinctive  characters  of  S.  indicus, 
such  as  the  shortness  of  the  lachr;^Tiial  bones,  &c.,  being  com- 
-mon  to  several  species  of  the  genus;  for  in  crosses  characters 
which  are  common  to  many  species  apparently  tend  to  be 
prepotent  over  those  appertaining  to  only  a  few  species. 

The  Japan  pig  (>S'.  pliciceps  of  Gray),  which  was  formerly 
exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  has  an  extraordinary 
appearance  from  its  short  head,  broad  forehead  and  nose, 
great  fleshy  ears,  and  deeply  furrowed  skin.  The  following 
woodcut  is  copied  from  that  given  by  Mr.  Bartlett.'"  jSTot 
only  is  the  face  furrowed,  but  thick  folds  of  skin,  which  are 
harder  than  the  other  parts,  almost  like  the  plates  on  the 
Indian  rhinoceros,  hang  about  the  shoulders  and  rump.  It 
is  coloured  black,  with  white  feet,  and  breeds  true.  That  it 
has  long  been  domesticated  there  can  be  little  doubt;  and 
this  might  have  been  inferred  even  from  the  fact  that  its 
young  are  not  longitudinally  striped;  for  this  is  a  character 
common  to  all  species  included  within  the  genus  Sus  and 
the  allied  genera  whilst  in  their  natural  state.^^  Dr. 
•Gray  ^'  has  described  the  skull  of  this  animal,  which  he  ranks 
not  only  as  a  distinct  species,  but  places  it  in  a  distinct  sec- 
tion of  the  genus.  Nathusius,  however,  after  his  careful 
:study  of  the  whole  group,  states  positively  (Schweineschadel, 
s.  153-158)  that  the  skull  in  all  essential  characters  closely 
resembles  that  of  the  short-eared  Chinese  breed  of  the  S. 
indicus  type.  Hence  Nathusius  considers  the  Japan  pig  as 
-only  a  domesticated  variety  of  S.  i7idicus:  if  this  really  be 
the  case,  it  is  a  wonderful  instance  of  the  amount  of  modi- 
fication which  can  be  effected  under  domestication. 

Formerly  there  existed  in  the  central  islands  of  the  Pa- 

-cific  Ocean  a  singular  breed  of  pigs.     These  are  described  by 

the  Rev.   D.   Tyerman   and   G.   Bennett  ^^   as   of   small   size, 

hump-backed,    with    a    disproportionately    long    head,    with 

short   ears  turned   backwards,   with   a   bushy  tail  not   more 

10  '  Proc.  Zoolog.   Soc.,'  1S61.  p.  in":  essay.   '  Der  Rohjidpl  des  Mas- 
ses, kenschweinps,'  1870.     He  confirms 

11  Sclater.     in     '  Proc.     Zoolog.  the   conclusion   of   von    Nathnsins         i 
Soc'   Feb.   2rith.   ISfil.  on   the   relationship   of   this   kind         i 

12  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1S62,  p.  of   pig.  \\ 
13.     The  skull  has  since  been  de-             i-^  '  Jonrnal     of     Voyages     and 
scrilied  much  more  fully  by  Pro-  Travels  from  1S21  to  1S29,'  vol.  i. 
jfessor   Lucae   in  a   very   interest-  p.  300. 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


n 


than  two  inches  in  length,  placed  as  if  it  grew  from  the  back. 
Within  half  a  century  after  the  introduction  of  European 
and  Chinese  pigs  into  these  islands,  the  native  breed,  accord- 
ing to  the  above  authors,  became  almost  completely  lost  by 
being  repeatedly  crossed  with  them.  Secluded  islands,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  seem  favourable  for  the  production. 


Fig.  2.— Head  of  Japan  or  Masked  Pi^.     (Copied  from  :Mr.  Bartlett's 
paper  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc'  1861,  p.  263.) 

or  retention  of  peculiar  breeds;  thus,  in  the  Orkney  Islands, 
the  hogs  have  been  described  as  very  small,  with  erect  and 
sharp  ears,  and  "  with  an  appearance  altogether  different  from 
the  hogs  brought  from  the  south." 

Seeing  how  different  the  Chinese  pigs,  belonging  to  the 
Sus  indicus  type,  are  in  their  osteological  characters  and  in 

1*  Rev   G.    Low,    '  Fauna   Orca-        bert's  account  of  the  pig  of  the 
densis,'  p.  10.     See  also  Dr.  Hib-       Shetland  Islands, 


72  DOMESTIC   PIGS.  Chap.  III. 

external  appearance  from  the  pigs  of  the  S.  scrofa  type,  so 
that  they  must  be  considered  specifically  distinct,  it  is  a  fact 
well  deserving  attention,  that  Chinese  and  common  pigs 
have  been  repeatedly  crossed  in  various  manners,  with  un- 
impaired fertility.  One  great  breeder  who  had  used  pure 
Chinese  pigs  assured  me  that  the  fertility  of  the  half-breeds 
inter  se  and  of  their  recrossed  progeny  was  actually  increased; 
and  this  is  the  general  belief  of  agriculturists.  Again,  the 
Japan  pig  or  ♦S'.  pliciceps  of  Gray  is  so  distinct  in  appear- 
ance from  all  common  pigs,  that  it  stretches  one's  belief 
to  the  utmost  to  admit  that  it  is  simply  a  domestic  variety; 
yet  this  breed  has  been  found  perfectly  fertile  with  the  Berk- 
shire breed ;  and  Mr.  Eyton  informs  me  that  he  paired  a  half- 
bred  brother  and  sister  and  found  them  quite  fertile  together. 
The  modification  of  the  skull  in  the  most  highly  culti- 
vated races  is  wonderful.  To  appreciate  the  amount  of 
change,  Nathusius'  work,  with  its  excellent  figures,  should 
be  studied.  The  whole  of  the  exterior  in  all  its  parts  has 
been  altered :  the  hinder  surface,  instead  of  sloping  back- 
wards, is  directed  forwards,  entailing  many  changes  in  other 
parts;  the  front  of  the  head  is  deeply  concave;  the  orbits 
have  a  different  shape;  the  auditory  meatus  has  a  different 
direction  and  shape;  the  incisors  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws  do  not  touch  each  other,  and  they  stand  in  both  jaws 
beyond  the  plane  of  the  molars;  the  canines  of  the  upper 
jaw  stand  in  front  of  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  this 
is  a  remarkable  anomaly :  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  oc- 
cipital condyles  are  so  greatly  changed  in  shape,  that,  as 
Nathusius  remarks  (s.  133),  no  naturalist,  seeing  this  im- 
portant part  of  the  skull  by  itself,  would  suppose  that  it 
belonged  to  the  genus  Sus.  These  and  various  other  modi- 
fications, as  jSTathusius  observes,  can  hardly  be  considered  as 
monstrosities,  for  they  are  not  injurious,  and  are  strictly  in- 
herited. The  whole  head  is  much  shortened;  thus,  whilst  in 
common  breeds  its  length  to  that  of  the  body  is  as  1  to  6, 
in  the  "  cultur-racen  "  the  proportion  is  as  1  to  9,  and  even 
recently  as  1  to  11.^^     The  following  woodcut  ^'^  of  the  head 

15  '  Die   Racen   des   Scliweines,'  Sidney's  excellent  edition  of  '  The 

s.  70.  Pig.'  by  Youatt,  ISOO.     See  pp.  1, 

18  These    woodcuts    are    copied  16,  19. 
from  engravings  given  in  Mr.   S. 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  VARIATIOX. 


73 


of  a  wild  boar  and  of  a  sow  from  a  photograph  of  the 
Yorkshire  Large  Breed,  may  aid  in  showing  how  greatly  the 
head  in  a  highly  cultivated  race  has  been  modified  and 
shortened. 


frr 


iSTathusius  has  well 


the  remarkable  changes 
in  the  skull  and  shape 
of  the  body  which 
the  highlj^  cultivated 
races  have  undergone. 
These  modifications  oc- 
cur chiefly  in  the  pure 
and  crossed  races  of  the 
S.  indicus  type;  but 
their  commencement 
may  be  clearly  detected 
in  the  slightly  im- 
proved breeds  of  the 
S.  scrofa  type."  'Na.- 
thusius  states  positive- 
ly (s.  99,  103),  as  the 
result  of  common  ex- 
periments and  of  his 
experiments,  that  rich 
and  abundant  food, 
given  during  youth, 
tends  by  some  direct 
action  to  make  the 
head  broader  and  short- 
er; and  that  poor  food 
works  a  contrary  re- 
sult. He  lays  much 
stress  on  the  fact  that 


.v?^- 


all    wild    and    semi-do-    Fig.  3.— Head  of  Wild  Boar  and  of  "  Golden 
^.      ,     T  .  .  Days,    a  pig  of  the  Yorkshire  Large  Breed; 


the  latter  from  a  pliotograoh.  (Copied 
from  Sidney's  edit,  of  'The  Pig,'  by 
Youatt. ) 


mesticated  pigs,  m 
ploughing  up  the 
ground  with  their  muz- 
zles,   have,    whilst    young,    to    exert    the    powerful    muscles 

"  '  Schweineschiidel,'  s.  74,  135. 


74  DOMESTIC  PIGS.  Chap.  III. 

fixed  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  head.  In  highly  cul- 
tivated races  this  habit  is  no  longer  followed,  and  conse- 
quently the  back  of  the  skull  becomes  modified  in  shape,  en- 
tailing other  changes  in  other  parts.  There  can  hardly  be 
a  doubt  that  so  great  a  change  in  habits  would  affect  the 
skull;  but  it  seems  rather  doubtful  how  far  this  will  account 
for  the  greatly  reduced  length  of  the  skull  and  for  its  concave 
front.  It  is  well  known  (ISTathusius  himself  advancing 
many  cases,  s.  104)  that  there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  many 
domestic  animals — in  bull-  and  pug-dogs,  in  the  niata  cattle, 
in  sheep,  in  Polish  fowls,  short-faced  tumbler  pigeons,  and 
in  one  variety  of  the  carp — for  the  bones  of  the  face  to 
become  greatly  shortened.  In  the  case  of  the  dog,  as  H. 
Miiller  has  shown,  this  seems  caused  by  an  abnormal  state  of 
the  primordial  cartilage.  We  may,  however,  readily  admit 
that  abundant  and  rich  food  supplied  during  many  genera- 
tions would  give  an  inherited  tendency  to  increased  size  of 
body,  and  that,  from  disuse,  the  limbs  would  become  finer 
and  shorter.^^  We  shall  in  a  future  chapter  see  also  that  the 
skull  and  limbs  are  apparently  in  some  manner  correlated, 
so  that  any  change  in  the  one  tends  to  affect  the  other. 

Kathusius  has  remarked,  and  the  observation  is  an  in- 
teresting one,  that  the  peculiar  form  of  the  skull  and  body 
in  the  most  highly  cultivated  races  is  not  characteristic  of 
any  one  race,  but  is  common  to  all  when  improved  up  to  the 
same  standard.  Thus  the  large-bodied,  long-eared,  English 
breeds  with  a  convex  back,  and  the  small-bodied,  short-eared, 
Chinese  breeds  with  a  concave  back,  when  bred  to  the  same 
state  of  perfection,  nearly  resemble  each  other  in  the  form 
of  the  head  and  body.  This  result,  it  appears,  is  partly  due 
to  similar  causes  of  change  acting  on  the  several  races,  and 
partly  to  man  breeding  the  pig  for  one  sole  purpose,  namely, 
for  the  greatest  amount  of  flesh  and  fat ;  so  that  selection  has 
always  tended  towards  one  and  the  same  end.  With  most 
domestic  animals  the  result  of  selection  has  been  divergence 
of  character,  here  it  has  been  convergence.^'' 

The  nature  of  the   food  supplied  during  many  genera- 
ls Nathusius,    '  Die    Racen    des        Compare,  also,  the  figures  of  the 
Schweines,'  s.  71.  old   Irish  and  the  improved   Irish 

^^  '  Die  Racen  des  Schweines,'        breeds    in    Richardson    on    '  The 
s.  47.     '  Schweineschildel,'  s.  104.        Pig,'  1847. 


Chap.  III.  THEIR  VARIATION.  75 

tions  has  apparently  affected  the  length  of  the  intestines; 
for,  according  to  Cuvier,'"  their  length  to  that  of  the  body 
in  the  wild  boar  is  as  9  to  1,— in  the  common  domestic  boar 
as  13.5  to  1,— and  in  the  Siam  breed  as  16  to  1.  In  this 
latter  breed  the  greater  length  may  be  due  either  to  descent 
from  a  distinct  species  or  to  more  ancient  domestication.. 
The  number  of  mammse  vary,  as  does  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion. The  latest  authority  says '"  that  "  the  period  averages 
from  17  to  20  weeks/'  but  I  think  there  must  be  some  error 
in  this  statement :  in  M.  Tessier's  observations  on  25  sows 
it  varied  from  109  to  123  days.  The  Rev.  W.  D.  Fox  has 
given  me  ten  carefully  recorded  cases  with  well-bred  pigs, 
in  which  the  period  varied  from  101  to  116  days.  Accord- 
ing to  Nathusius  the  period  is  shortest  in  the  races  which 
come  early  to  maturity;  but  the  course  of  their  development 
does  not  appear  to  be  actually  shortened,  for  the  young 
animal  is  born,  judging  from  the  state  of  the  skull,  less 
fully  developed,  or  in  a  more  embryonic  condition,"  than 
in  the  case  of  common  swine.  In  the  highly  cultivated 
and  early  matured  races  the  teeth,  also,  are  developed 
earlier. 

The  difference  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  and  ribs  in 
different  kinds  of  pigs,  as  observed  by  Mr.  Eyton,'^  and 
as  given  in  the  following  table,  has  often  been  quoted.  The 
African  sow  probably  belongs  to  the  8.  scrofa  type;  and  Mr. 
Eyton  informs  me  that,  since  the  publication  of  this  paper, 
cross-bred  animals  from  the  African  and  English  races  were 
found  by  Lord  Hill  to  be  perfectly  fertile. 

Some  semi-monstrous  breeds  deserve  notice.  From  the 
time  of  Aristotle  to  the  present  time  solid-hoofed  swine  have 
occasionally  been  observed  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
Although  this  peculiarity  is  strongly  inherited,  it  is  hardly 
probable  that  all  the  animals  with  solid  hoofs  have  descended 

20  Quoted     bv     Isid.     Geoffroy,        Linn.   Soc.,'  vol.   ii.  p.  2S)  on  the 
'  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  torn.  iii.  p.  441.        difference     between     dorsal     and 

21  S.  Sidney.  '  The  Pig,'  p.  61.  lumbar  vertebrae  depending  only 
2-  '  Schweineschiidel.'  s.  2,  20.  on  the  development  of  the  ribs. 
23  '  Proe.  Zoolng.  Soc.,'  1837,  p.        Nevertheless  the  difference  in  the 

23.     I  have  not  given  the  caudal  number   of    the    ribs    in    pigsde- 

vertebrse,  as  Mr.  Eyton  says  some  serves    notice.      M.    Sanson    gives 

might  possibly  have  been  lost.     I  the   number   of   lumbar    vertebrtB 

have    added    together    the    dorsal  in    various    pigs:    '  Comptes    Ken- 

and    lumbar    vertebrae,    owing    to  dus,'  Ixiii.  p.  843. 
Prof.    Owen's    remarks    ('  Journal 


76 


DOMESTIC   PIGS. 


Chap.  III. 


from  the  same  parents;  it  is  more  probable  that  the  same 
peculiarity  has  reappeared  at  various  times  and  places.  Dr. 
Struthers  has  lately  described  and  figured  '*  the  structure  of 


- 

Ererliph 
Lons- 
legeed 
Male. 

African 
Female. 

Chinese 
Male. 

Wild  Boar 

from 

Cuvier. 

French 

Domestic 

Boar,  from 

Cuvier. 

Dorsal  vertebrse    . 
Lumbar    .... 

15 
6 

13 
6 

15 

4 

14 
5 

14 
5 

Dorsal  and  lum-  ) 
bar  together  .    j 

Sacral  

21 
5 

12 
5 

19 
4 

19 

4 

19 

4 

Total     number  ) 
of  vertebrse .   j 

26 

24                 23 

23 

23 

the  feet;  in  both  front  and  hind  feet  the  distal  phalanges 
of  the  two  greater  toes  are  represented  by  a  single,  great, 
hoof -bearing  phalanx;  and  in  the  front  feet,  the  middle 
phalanges  are  represented  by  a  bone  which  is  single  towards 
the  lower  end,  but  bears  two  separate  articulations  towards 
the  upper  end.  From  other  accounts  it  appears  that  an  inter- 
mediate toe  is  likewise  sometimes  superadded. 

Another  curious  anomaly  is  offered  by  the  appendages, 
described  by  M.  Eudes-Deslongchamps  as  often  characteriz- 
ing the  Normandy  pigs.  These  appendages  are  always  at- 
tached to  the  same  spot,  to  the  corners  of  the  jaw;  they  are 
cylindrical,  about  three  inches  in  length,  covered  with 
bristles,  and  with  a  pencil  of  bristles  rising  out  of  a  sinus 
on  one  side:  they  have  a  cartilaginous  centre,  with  two 
small  longitudinal  muscles :  they  occur  either  symmetrically 
on  both  sides  of  the  face  or  on  one  side  alone.  Richardson 
figures  them  on  the  gaunt  old  "  Irish  Grejdiound  pig ;  "  and 
Nathusius  state  that  they  occasionally  appear  in  all  the  long 
eared  races,  but  are  not  strictly  inherited,  for  they  occur  or 


2*  '  Edinburgh  New  Philosoph. 
Journal.'  April.  180,3.  Scr  also  De 
Blainville's      '  Osteographie,'      p. 


12S.     for    various 
this  subject. 


authorities    on 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  VARIATION. 


71 


fail  in  animals  of  the  same  litter."'  As  no  wild  pigs  are 
known  to  have  analogous  appendages,  we  have  at  present  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  their  appearance  is  due  to  reversion; 


Fig.  4. — Old  Irish  Pig,  with  jaw-appendages.     (Copied  from 
H.  D.  Richardson  on  Pigs.) 

and  if  this  be  so,  we  are  forced  to  admit  that  a  somewhat 
complex,  though  apparently  useless,  structure  may  be  sud- 
denly developed  without  the  aid  of  selection. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  boars  of  all  domesticated 
breeds  have  much  shorter  tusks  than  wild  boars.  Many  facts 
show  that  with  many  animals  the  state  of  the  hair  is  much 
affected  by  exposure  to,  or  protection  from,  climate;  and 
as  we  see  that  the  state  of  the  hair  and  teeth  are  correlated 
in  Turkish  dogs  (other  analogous  facts  will  be  hereafter 
given),  may  we  not  venture  to  surmise  that  the  reduction 
of  the  tusks  in  the  domestic  boar  is  related  to  his  coat  of 
bristles  being  diminished  from  living  under  shelter  ?  On  the 
other  hand,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  the  tusks  and  bristles 
reappear  with  feral  boars,  which  are  no  longer  protected  from 
the  weather.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  tusks  should  be 
more  affected  than  the  other  teeth;  as  parts  developed  to 
serve  as  secondary  sexual  characters  are  always  liable  to 
much  variation. 


^'  Eurles-Deslongchamps,  '  M6- 
molres  de  la  Soc.  Linn,  de  Nor- 
mandie,'    vol.    vii.,    1842,    p.    41. 


Richardson.  '  Pigs,  their  Origin, 
&c.,'  1847,  p.  .30.  Nathiisius,  '  Die 
Racen  des  Schweines,'  18G3,  s.  54. 


Y8 


DOMESTIC   PIGS. 


Chap.  III. 


It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  young  of  wild  European 
and  Indian  pigs/"  for  the  first  six  months,  are  longitudinally- 
banded  with  light-coloured  stripes.  This  character  generally 
disappears  under  domestication.  The  Turkish  domestic 
pigs,  however,  have  striped  young,  as  have  those  of  West- 
phalia, "  whatever  may  be  their  hue ;  "  ^^  whether  these  latter 
pigs  belong  to  the  same  curly-haired  race  as  the  Turkish 
swine,  I  do  not  know.  The  pigs  which  have  run  wild  in 
Jamaica  and  the  semi-feral  pigs  of  New  Granada,  both  those 
w^hich  are  black  and  those  which  are  black  with  a  white 
band  across  the  stomach,  often  extending  over  the  back,  have 
resumed  this  aboriginal  character  and  produce  longitudinally- 
striped  young.  This  is  likewise  the  case,  at  least  occasion- 
ally, with  the  neglected  pigs  in  the  Zambesi  settlement  on  the 
coast  of  Africa.'" 

The  common  belief  that  all  domesticated  animals,  when 
they  run  wild,  revert  completely  to  the  character  of  their 
parent-stock,  is  chiefly  founded,  as  far  as  I  can  discover,  on 
feral  pigs.  But  even  in  this  case  the  belief  is  not  grounded 
on  sufficient  evidence;  for  the  two  main  types,  namely,  S. 
scrofa  and  indicus,  have  not  been  distinguished.     The  young, 


26  D.  Johnson's  '  Sketches  of 
Indian  Field  Sports.'  p.  272.  Mr. 
Crawfnrd  informs  me  that  the 
same  fact  holds  good  with  the 
wild  pigs  of  the  Malay  peninsula. 

-^  For  Turkish  pigs,  scr  Des- 
marest,  '  Mammalogie,'  1820.  p. 
391.  For  those  of  Westphalia, 
see  Richardson's  '  Pigs,  their  Ori- 
gin. &c.,'  1847,  p.  41. 

-^  With  respect  to  the  several 
foregoing  and  following  state- 
ments on  feral  pigs,  see  Roulin,  in 
'  Mem.  presentes  par  divers  Sa- 
vans  a  I'Acad.,'  &c.,  Paris,  tom. 
vi.  1835,  p.  320.  It  should  be  ob- 
served that  his  account  does  not 
apply  to  truly  feral  pigs:  but  to 
pigs'  long  introduced  into  the 
country  and  living  in  a  half-wild 
state.  For  the  truly  feral  pigs  of 
Jamaica,  see  Gosse's  '  Sojourn  in 
Jamaica,'  1851,  p.  386;  and  Col. 
Hamilton  Smith,  in  '  Nat.  Li- 
brary,' vol.  ix.  p.  93.  With  re- 
spect to  Africa,  see  Livingstone's 
'  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi,' 
1865,  p.  153.  The  most  precise 
statement  with  respect  to  the 
tusks   of   the    West    Indian    feral 


boars  is  by  P.  Labat  (quoted  by 
Roulin);  but  this  author  attributes 
the  state  of  these  pigs  to  descent 
from  a  domestic  stock  which  he 
saw  in  Spain.  Admiral  Sulivan, 
R.N.,  had  ample  opportunities  of 
observing  the  wild  i)igs  on  Eagle 
Islet  in  the  Falklands;  and  he  in- 
forms me  that  they  resembled 
wild  boars  with  bristly  ridged 
backs  and  large  tusks.  The  pigs 
which  have  run  wild  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Buenos  Ayres  (Rengger, 
'  Siiugethiere.'  s.  331)  have  not  re- 
verted to  the  wild  type.  De 
Blainville  ('  Osteographie.'  p.  132) 
refers  to  two  skulls  of  domestic 
pigs  sent  from  Patagonia  by  Al. 
d'Orbigny,  and  be  states  that 
they  have  the  occipital  elevation 
of  the  wild  European  boar,  but 
that  the  head  altogether  is  "  plus 
courte  et  plus  ramassee."  He  re- 
fers, also,  to  the  skin  of  a  feral 
pig  from  North  America,  and 
says.  "  il  ressemble  tout  a  fait  i 
un  petit  sanglier,  mais  il  est 
presque  tout  noir,  et  peut-etre 
un  pen  plus  ramasse  dans  ses 
formes." 


Chap.  III.      THEIR  CHARACTER  WHEN  FERAL.  79 

as  we  have  just  seen,  reacquire  their  longitudinal  stripes, 
and  the  boars  invariably  reassume  their  tusks.  They  revert 
also  in  the  general  shape  of  their  bodies,  and  in  the  length  of 
their  legs  and  muzzles,  to  the  state  of  the  wild  animal,  as 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  amount  of  exercise  which 
they  are  compelled  to  take  in  search  of  food.  In  Jamaica 
the  feral  pigs  do  not  acquire  the  full  size  of  the  European 
wild  boar,  "  never  attaining  a  greater  height  than  20  inches 
at  the  shoulder."  In  various  countries  they  reassume  their 
original  bristly  covering,  but  in  different  degrees,  dependent 
on  the  climate;  thus,  according  to  Roulin,  the  semi-feral 
pigs  in  the  hot  valleys  of  New  Granada  are  very  scantily 
clothed;  whereas,  on  the  Paramos,  at  the  height  of  7000  to 
8000  feet,  they  acquire  a  thick  covering  of  wool  lying  under 
the  bristles,  like  that  on  the  truly  wild  pigs  of  France.  These 
pigs  on  the  Paramos  are  small  and  stunted.  The  wild  boar 
of  India  is  said  to  have  the  bristles  at  the  end  of  its  tail 
arranged  like  the  plumes  of  an  arrow,  whilst  the  European 
boar  has  a  simple  tuft ;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  many, 
but  not  all,  of  the  feral  pigs  in  Jamaica,  derived  from  a 
Spanish  stock,  have  a  plumed  tail.""*  With  respect  to  colour, 
feral  pigs  generally  revert  to  that  of  the  wild  boar;  but  in 
certain  parts  of  S.  America,  as  we  have  seen,  some  of  the 
semi-feral  pigs  have  a  curious  white  band  across  their  stom- 
achs; and  in  certain  other  hot  places  the  pigs  are  red,  and 
this  colour  has  likewise  occasionally  been  observed  in  the 
feral  pigs  of  Jamaica.  From  these  several  facts  we  see  that 
with  pigs  when  feral  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  revert  to 
the  wild  tji)e;  but  that  this  tendency  is  largely  governed 
by  the  nature  of  the  climate,  amount  of  exercise,  and  other 
causes  of  change  to  which  they  have  been  subjected. 

The  last  point  worth  notice  is  that  we  have  unusually 
good  evidence  of  breeds  of  pigs  now  keeping  perfectly  true, 
which  have  been  formed  by  the  crossing  of  several  distinct 
breeds.  The  Improved  Essex  pigs,  for  instance,  breed  very 
true;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  largely  owe  their  present 
excellent  qualities  to  crosses  originally  made  by  Lord  Western 
Berkshire  breed  (this  also  having  been  improved  by  Neapoli- 

-^  Gosse's  '  .Tamaica.'  p.  380,  Also  Col.  Hamilton  Smith,  in 
with  a  quotation  from  William-  'Naturalist  Library,'  vol.  ix.  p.  94. 
son's     '  Oriental     Field     Sports.' 


80 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  III. 


30 


tan  crosses),  and  likewise,  probably,  with  the  Sussex  breed 
In  breeds  thus  formed  by  complex  crosses,  the  most  careful 
and  unremitting  selection  during  many  generations  has  been 
found  to  be  indispensable.  Chiefly  in  consequence  of  so 
much  crossing,  some  well-known  breeds  have  undergone  rapid 
changes;  thus,  according  to  Nathusius,^^  the  Berkshire  breed 
of  1780  is  quite  different  from  that  of  1810;  and,  since  this 
latter  loeriod,  at  least  two  distinct  forms  have  borne  the  same 
name. 

Cattle. 

Domestic  cattle  are  certainly  the  descendants  of  more 
than  one  wild  form,  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  shown 
to  be  the  case  with  our  dogs  and  pigs.  Naturalists  have 
generally  made  two  main  divisions  of  cattle :  the  humped 
kinds  inhabiting  tropical  countries,  called  in  India  Zebus, 
to  which  the  specific  name  of  Bos  indicus  has  been  given; 
and  the  common  non-humped  cattle,  generally  included  under 
the  name  of  Bos  taurus.  The  humped  cattle  were  domesti- 
cated, as  may  be  seen  on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  at  least 
as  early  as  the  twelfth  dynasty,  that  is  2100  b.  c.  They  differ 
from  common  cattle  in  various  osteological  characters,  even 
in  a  greater  degree,  according  to  Riitimeyer,^'  than  do  the 
fossil  and  prehistoric  European  species,  namely  Bos  primi- 
genius  and  longifrons,  from  each  other.  They  differ,  also, 
as  Mr.  Blyth,^^  who  has  particularly  attended  to  this  subject, 
remarks,  in  general  configuration,  in  the  shape  of  their  ears, 
in  the  point  where  the  dewlap  commences,  in  the  typical 
curvature  of  their  horns,  in  their  manner  of  carrying  their 
heads  when  at  rest,  in  their  ordinary  variations  of  colour, 
especially  in  the  frequent  presence  of  "  nilgau-like  markings 
on  their  feet,"  and  "  in  the  one  being  born  with  teeth  pro- 


30  S.  Sidney's  edition  of  '  You- 
att  on  the  Pig,'  1860,  pp.  7,  26, 
27    29    .30. 

'si"'  Seli'weineschiidel,'   s.  140. 

32  '  Die  Faima  der  Pfahlban- 
ten,'  1861.  s.  109.  149.  222.  Sre. 
also  Geoffrov  Saint-Hilaire.  in 
'  Mem.  du  Mus.  d'Hist.  Nat..' 
torn.  X.  p.  172;  and  his  son  Isi- 
dore, in  '  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,'  toni. 
iii.  p.  69.  Vasev.  in  liis  '  De- 
lineations of  the  Ox  Tribe,'  1851, 
p.   127,    says   the   zebu   has   four, 


and  common  ox  five,  sacral  ver- 
tebrae. Mr.  Hodgson  found  the 
ribs  either  thirteen  or  fourteen  in 
nnnil)er:  see  a  note  in  '  Indian 
Field,'  1858.  p.  62. 

33  '  The  Indian  Field."  1858.  p. 
74.  where  Mr.  Blyth  gives  his  au- 
thorities with  respect  to  the  feral 
humped  cattle.  Pickering,  also, 
in  his  '  Races  of  Man.'  1850.  p. 
274.  notices  the  peculiar  grunt- 
like character  of  the  voice  of  the 
humped  cattle. 


Chap.  III.  THEIR   PAREXTAGE.  81 

truding  through  the  jaws,  and  the  other  not  so."  They  have 
different  habits,  and  their  voice  is  entirely  different.  The 
humped  cattle  in  India  "  seldom  seek  shade, .  and  never  go 
into  the  water  and  there  stand  knee-deep,  like  the  cattle 
of  Europe."  They  have  run  wild  in  parts  of  Oude  and  Rohil- 
cund,  and  can  maintain  themselves  in  a  region  infested  by 
tigers.  They  have  given  rise  to  many  races  differing'  greatly 
in  size,  in  the  presence  of  one  or  two  humps,  in  length  of 
horns,  and  other  respects.  Mr.  Blyth  sums  up  emphatically 
that  the  humped  and  humpless  cattle  must  be  considered  as 
distinct  species.  When  we  consider  the  number  of  points 
in  external  structure  and  habits,  independently  of  important 
osteological  differences,  in  which  they  differ  from  each  other ; 
and  that  many  of  these  points  are  not  likely  to  have  been 
affected  by  domestication,  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  not- 
withstanding the  adverse  opinion  of  some  naturalists,  that 
the  humped  and  non-humped  cattle  must  be  ranked  as  spe- 
cifically distinct. 

The  European  breeds  of  humpless  cattle  are  numerous. 
Professor  Low  enumerates  19  British  breeds,  only  a  few  of 
which  are  identical  with  those  on  the  Continent.  Even 
the  small  Channel  islands  of  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  Alderney 
possess  their  own  sub-breeds;^*  and  these  again  differ  from 
the  cattle  of  the  other  British  islands,  such  as  Anglesea,  and 
the  western  isles  of  Scotland.  Desmarest,  who  paid  atten- 
tion to  the  subject,  describes  15  French  races,  excluding  sub- 
varieties  and  those  imported  from  other  countries.  In  other 
parts  of  Europe  there  are  several  distinct  races,  such  as  the 
pale-coloured  Hungarian  cattle,  with  their  light  and  free 
step,  and  enormous  horns  sometimes  measuring  above  five 
feet  from  tip  to  tip  "f"  the  Podolian  cattle  also  are  remarkable 
from  the  height  of  their  fore-quarters.  In  the  most  recent 
work  on  Cattle,^""  engravings  are  given  of  fifty-five  European 
breeds;  it  is,  however,  probable  that  several  of  these  differ 
very  little  from  each  other,  or  are  merely  synonjTns.     It  must 

3*  Mr.     H.     E.     Marquand,     in  Riiules.'    1866,    s.    13)    from    Bos 

'  The  Times,'  June  23rfl,  1856.  prhnir/niius. 

^=  Vasey,      Delineations   of   tlie  ^*^  Moll    and    Ga.vot,    '  La    Con- 
Ox  Tribe."'  p.  124.     Brace's  "  Hun-  naissanee   Gen.   du    Boeuf,'    Paris, 
gary,'    1851,    p.    94.      Tlie    Hunjra-  1860.     Fifj.   82  is  that  of  the  Po- 
riari  cattle  descend,   according  to  dollan  breed. 
Biitimeyer       ('  Zahmeu        Europ. 


82 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  III. 


not  be  supposed  that  numerous  breeds  of  cattle  exist  only  in 
long-civilized  countries,  for  we  shall  presently  see  that  several 
kinds  are  kept  by  the  savages  of  Southern  Africa. 

With  respect  to  the  parentage  of  the  several  European  breeds, 
we  already  know  nuieh  from  Xilsson's  Memoir/'  and  more  espe- 
cially from  Riitimeyer's  works  and  those  of  Boyd  Dawkins.  Two 
or  three  species  or  forms  of  Bos,  closely  allied  to  still  living  do- 
mestic races,  haA-e  been  found  in  the  more  recent  tertiary  deposits 
or  amongst  prehistoric  remains  in  Europe.  Following  Riitimeyer, 
we  have:  — 

Bos  primigeniiis. — This  magnificent,  well  known  species  was 
domesticated  in  Switzerland  during  the  Xeolitliic  period:  even  at 
this  early  period  it  varied  a  little,  having  apparently  been  crossed 


with  other  races, 
the  Friesland,  &c., 
semble  in  essential 
descendants.     This 


Some  of  the 

and  the  Pembroke 


larger 


races  on  the  Continent,  as 
race  in  England,  closely  re- 
structure B.  priniif/cnius,  and  no  doubt  are  its 
is  likewise  the  opinion  of  Xilsson.  Bos  primi- 
geniiis  existed  as  a  wild  animal  in  Caesar's  time,  and  is  now  semi- 
wild,  though  much  degenerated  in  size,  in  the  park  of  Chilling- 
ham;  for  I  am  informed  bv  Professor  Riitimever,  to  whom  Lord 
Tankerville  sent  a  skull,  that  the  Chillingham  cattle  are  less  al- 
tered from  the  true  primigenius  type  than  any  other  known 
breed.^* 

Bos  iroclioceros. — This  form  is  not  included  in  the  three  species 
above  mentioned,  for  it  is  now  considered  by  Rlitimeyer  to  be  the 
female  of  an  early  domesticated  form  of  B.  primUjenius,  and  as  the 
progenitor  of  his  frontosiis  race.  I  may  add  that  specific  names 
have  been  given  to  four  other  fossil  oxen,  now  believed  to  be  iden- 
tical with  B.  prhnhjcnius.^^ 

Bos  loncjifrons  (or  hracliyceros)  of  Owen. — This  very  distinct 
species  was  of  small  size,  and  had  a  short  body  with  fine  legs. 
According  to  Bovd  Dawkins  *"  it  was  introduced  as  a  domesticated 
animal  into  Britain  at  a  very  early  period,  and  supplied  food  to 
the  Roman  legionaries.*^  Some  remains  have  been  found  in  L'e- 
land  in  certain  crannoges,  of  which  the  dates  are  believed  to  be 
from  843-933  a.  r>.*^  It  was  also  the  commonest  form  in  a  do- 
mesticated condition  in  Switzerland  during  the  earliest  part  of  the 
Neolithic   period.     Professor   Owen  *^   thinks   it   probable   that   the 


3"  A  translation  appeared  in 
three  parts  in  the  '  Annals  and 
Mas:,  of  Nnt.  Hist.,'  2nd  series, 
vol.^iv.,  1840. 

3«  >Sce,  also,  Riitimeyer's  '  Bei- 
tnige  pal.  Gesch.  der  "NVieder- 
kilner.'   Basel.   1SB5.    s.   .54. 

39  j>j(.fpl'g  '  Paleontolosrie,'  torn. 
i.  p.  3i:.~>  (2ncl  edit.).  With  respect 
to  B.  trocJiorcros,  sff  Riitime.ver's 
'  Zahraeu  Eiu-op.  Rindes,'  1866, 
s    26 

'*^\y.  Boyd  Dawkins  on  the 
*  British    Fossil    Oxen,'    '  Journal 


of  the  Geolosr.  Soe.,'  An,£?..  1867, 
p.  182.  Also  '  Proc.  Phil.  Soe.  of 
Manchester.'  Nov.  14.  1871,  and 
'  Cave  Hunting,'  1875,  pages  27 
and  138. 

^1  '  British  Pleistocene  Mam- 
malia,' bv  "W.  B.  Dawkins  and 
W.    A.    Sandford.   1866.    p.   xv. 

«  W.  R.  Wilde,  '  An  Essay  on 
the  Animal  Remains.  Szc.  Royal 
Irish  Academy.'  I860,  p.  29. 
Also  '  Proc.  of  R.  Irish  Academy,' 
1858,   p.  48. 

"  '  Lecture:    Royal    Institution 


Chap.  III.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  33 

Welsh  and  Highland  cattle  are  descended  from  this  form ;  as  like- 
wise is  the  case,  according  to  Rutimeyer,  with  some  of  the  exist- 
ing Swiss  breeds.  These  latter  are  of  different  shades  of  colour 
from  light-grey  to  blackish-brown,  with  a  lighter  stripe  along  the 
spine,  but  they  have  no  pure  white  marks.  The  cattle  of  North 
Wales  and  the  Highlands,  on  the  other  hand,  are  generally  black 
or  dark-coloured. 

Bos  frohtosus  of  Nilsson. — This  species  is  allied  to  li.  longi- 
froris,  and,  according  to  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Boyd  Dawkins, 
is  identical  with  it,  but  in  the  opinion  of  some  judge's  is  distinct. 
Both  co-existed  in  Scania  during  the  same  late  geological  period,** 
and  both  have  been  found  in  the  Irish  crannoges.**  Nilsson  be- 
lieves that  his  B.  frontosus  may  be  the  parent  of  the  mountain 
cattle  of  Norway,  which  have  a  high  protuberance  on  the  skull 
between  the  base  of  the  horns.  As  Professor  Owen  and  others  be- 
lieve that  the  Scotch  Highland  cattle  are  descended  from  his  B. 
longifrons,  it  is  worth  notice  that  a  capable  judge  "^  has  remarked 
that  he  saw  no  cattle  in  Norway  like  the  Highland  breed,  but  that 
they  more  nearly  resembled  the  Devonshire  breed. 

On  the  whole  we  may  conclude,  more  especially  from  the 
researches  of  Boyd  Dawkins,  that  European  cattle  are  de- 
scended from  two  species;  and  there  is  no  improbability  in 
this  fact,  for  the  genus  Bos  readily  yields  to  domestication. 
Besides  these  two  species  and  the  zebu,  the  yak,  the  gayal, 
and  the  arni  *^  (not  to  mention  the  buffalo  or  genus  Bubalus) 
have  been  domesticated;  making  altogether  six  species  of 
Bos.  The  zebu  and  the  two  European  species  are  now  ex- 
tinct in  a  wild  state.  Although  certain  races  of  cattle  were 
domesticated  at  a  very  ancient  period  in  Europe,  it  does  not 
follow  that  they  were  first  domesticated  here.  Those  who 
place  much  reliance  on  philology  argue  that  they  were  im- 
ported from  the  East.'^  It  is  probable  that  they  originally 
inhabited  a  temperate  or  cold  climate,  but  not  a  land  long 
covered  with  snow;  for  our  cattle,  as  we  have  seen  in  the 
chapter  on  Horses,  have  not  the  instinct  of  scraping  away 
the  snow  to  get  at  the  herbage  beneath.  No  one  could  behold 
the  magnificent  wild  bulls  on  the  bleak  Falkland  Islands  in 
the  southern  hemisphere,  and  doubt  about  the  climate  being 

of    G.    Britain,'    Mav    2nd.    1850.  and   Mr.    Blythe.   in   '  Proc.    Irish 

p.  4.     '  British  Fossil  Mammals,'  Academy,'  March  5th,  1804. 

p.  51.3.  *^  Laing's    '  Tour    in    Norway,' 

**  Nilsson,  in  '  Annals  and  Maar.  p.  110. 

of   Nat.    Hist.,'    1849,    vol.    iv.    p.  "^  Isid.    Geoffroy   Saint-Hilalre, 

354.  '  Hist.   Nat.  Gen..'  torn.  iii.  90. 

*^  8ee  W.   R.   Wilde,   ut  supra;  *»  Idem,  torn.  iii.  pp.  82,  91. 

7 


84  CATTLE.  Chap.  III. 

admirably  suited  to  them.  Azara  has  remarked  that  in  the 
temperate  regions  of  La  Plata  the  cows  conceive  when  two 
years  old,  whilst  in  the  much  hotter  country  of  Paraguay 
they  do  not  conceive  till  three  years  old ;  "  from  which  fact," 
as  he  adds,  "  one  may  conclude  that  cattle  do  not  succeed  so 
well  in  w^arm  countries."  ** 

Bos  primigenius  and  longifrons  have  been  ranked  by  near- 
ly all  palaeontologists  as  distinct  species ;  and  it  would  not  be 
reasonable  to  take  a  different  view  simply  because  their  do- 
mesticated descendants  now  intercross  with  the  utmost  free- 
dom. All  the  European  breeds  have  so  often  been  crossed 
both  intentionally  and  unintentionally,  that,  if  any  sterility . 
had  ensued  from  such  unions,  it  would  certainly  have  been 
detected.  As  zebus  inhabit  a  distant  and  much  hotter  re- 
gion, and  as  they  differ  in  so  many  characters  from  our 
European  cattle,  I  have  taken  pains  to  ascertain  whether 
the  two  forms  are  fertile  when  crossed.  The  late  Lord  Powis 
imported  some  zebus  and  crossed  them  with  common  cattle 
in  Shropshire;  and  I  was  assured  by  his  steward  that  the 
cross-bred  animals  were  perfectly  fertile  with  both  parent- 
stocks.  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that  in  India  hybrids,  with 
various  proportions  of  either  blood,  are  quite  fertile;  and 
this  can  hardly  fail  to  be  known,  for  in  some  districts  ^"^  { 
the  two  species  are  allowed  to  breed  freely  together.  Most 
of  the  cattle  which  were  first  introduced  into  Tasmania  were 
humped,  so  that  at  one  time  thousands  of  crossed  animals 
existed  there ;  and  Mr.  B.  O'Xeile  Wilson,  M.  A.,  writes  to 
me  from  Tasmania  that  he  has  never  heard  of  any  sterility 
having  been  observed.  He  himself  formerly  possessed  a  • 
herd  of  such  crossed  cattle,  and  all  were  perfectly  fertile;  ; 
so  much  so,  that  he  cannot  remember  even  a  single  cow  '. 
failing  to  calve.  These  several  facts  afford  an  important  con-  j 
firmation  of  the  Pallasian  doctrine  that  the  descendants  of 
species  which  when  first  domesticated  would  if  crossed  have 
been  in  all  probability  in  some  degree  sterile,  become  per- 
fectly fertile  after  a  long  course  of  domestication.  In  a 
future  chapter  we  shall  see  that  this  doctrine  throws  some 
light  on  the  difficult  subject  of  Hybridism.  ? 


*9  '  Quadrupedes  du  Paraguay,'  ^o  -Walther,      '  Das      Riadvieh,' 

torn.  ii.  p.  360.  1817,  s.  30. 


Chap.  III. 


CROSSED  SPECIES  FERTILE. 


85 


I  have  alluded  to  the  cattle  in  Chillingham  Park,  which, 
according  to  Eiitimeyer,  have  been  very  little  changed  from 
the  Bos  primigenius  type.  This  park  is  so  ancient  that  it  is 
referred  to  in  a  record  of  the  year  1220.  The  cattle  in  their 
instincts  and  habits  are  truly  wild.  They  are  white,  with 
the  inside  of  the  ears  reddish-brown,  eyes  rimmed  with  black, 
muzzles  brown,  hoofs  black,  and  horns  white  tipped  with 
black.  Within  a  period  of  thirty-three  years  about  a  dozen 
calves  were  born  with  "  brown  and  blue  spots  upon  the  cheeks 
or  necks;  but  these,  together  with  any  defective  animals, 
were  always  destroyed."  According  to  Bewick,  about  the 
year  1770  some  calves  appeared  with  black  ears;  but  these 
were  also  destroyed  by  the  keeper,  and  black  ears  have  not 
since  reappeared.  The  wild  white  cattle  in  the  Duke  of 
Hamilton's  park,  where  I  have  heard  of  the  birth  of  a  black 
calf,  are  said  by  Lord  Tankerville  to  be  inferior  to  those 
at  Chillingham.  The  cattle  kept  until  the  year  1780  by  the 
Duke  of  Queensberry,  but  now  extinct,  had  their  ears,  muzzle, 
and  orbits  of  the  eyes  black.  Those  which  have  existed  from 
time  immemorial  at  Chartley,  closely  resemble  the  cattle  at 
Chillingham,  but  are  larger,  "  with  some  small  difference  in 
the  colour  of  the  ears."  "  They  frequently  tend  to  become 
entirely  black;  and  a  singular  superstition  prevails  in  the 
vicinity  that,  when  a  black  calf  is  born,  some  calamity  im- 
pends over  the  noble  house  of  Ferrers.  All  the  black  calves 
are  destroyed."  The  cattle  at  Burton  Constable  in  York- 
shire, now  extinct,  had  ears,  muzzle,  and  the  tip  of  the 
tail  black.  Those  at  Gisburne,  also  in  Yorkshire,  are  said 
by  Bewick  to  have  been  sometimes  without  dark  muzzles,  with 
the  inside  alone  of  the  ears  brown;  and  they  are  elsewhere 
said  to  have  been  low  in  stature  and  hornless.^^ 

The  several  above-specified  differences  in  the  park-cattle, 
slight  though  they  be,   are  worth   recording,   as   they   show 


^1  I  am  much  indebted  to  the 
present  Earl  of  Tankerville  for 
information  al)out  bis  wild  cattle; 
and  for  the  skull  which  was  sent 
to  Prof.  Riitimeyer.  The  fullest 
account  of  the  Chillingham  cattle 
is  given  by  Mr.  Hindmarsh,  to- 
gether with  a  letter  by  the  late 
Lord  Tankerville,  in  '  Annals  and 
Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  ii..  18.39, 
p.    274.      See    Bewick's    '  Quadru- 


peds,' 2nd  edit.,  1791.  p.  3."),  note. 
With  respect  to  those  of  the  Duke 
of  Queensberry,  see  Pennant's 
'  Tour  in  Scotland,'  p.  109.  For 
those  of  Chartley,  see  Low'.s  '  Do- 
mesticated Animals  of  Britain,' 
1845,  p.  238.  For  those  of  Gis- 
burne, see  Bewick's  '  Quadru- 
peds,' and  '  Encyclop.  of  Rural 
Sports,'  p.  101. 


86  CATTLE.  Chap.  III. 

that  animals  living  nearly  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  exposed 
to  nearly  uniform  conditions,  if  not  allowed  to  roam  freely 
and  to  cross  with  other  herds,  do  not  keep  as  uniform  as 
truly  wild  animals.  For  the  preservation  of  a  uniform  char- 
acter, even  within  the  same  park,  a  certain  degree  of  selec- 
tion— that  is,  the  destruction  of  the  dark-coloured  calves — 
is  apparently  necessary. 

Boyd  Dawkins  believes  that  the  park-cattle  are  descended 
from  anciently  domesticated,  and  not  truly  wild  animals; 
and  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  dark-coloured  calves, 
it  is  improbable  that  the  aboriginal  Bos  primigenius  was 
white.  It  is  curious  w^hat  a  strong,  though  not  invariable, 
tendency  there  is  in  wild  or  escaped  cattle  to  become  white 
with  coloured  ears,  under  widely  different  conditions  of  life. 
If  the  old  writers  Boethius  and  Leslie  ^^  can  be  trusted,  the 
wild  cattle  of  Scotland  were  white  and  furnished  with  a 
great  mane ;  but  the  colour  of  their  ears  is  not  mentioned.  In 
Wales,^^  during  the  tenth  century,  some  of  the  cattle  are 
described  as  being  white  with  red  ears.  Four  hundred  cattle 
thus  coloured  were  sent  to  King  John;  and  an  early  record 
speaks  of  a  hundred  cattle  with  red  ears  having  been  de- 
manded as  a  compensation  for  some  offence,  but,  if  the  cattle 
were  of  a  dark  or  black  colour,  150  were  to  be  presented.  The 
black  cattle  of  North  Wales  apparently  belong,  as  we  have 
;seen,  to  the  small  longifrons  type:  and  as  the  alternative 
was  offered  of  either  150  dark  cattle,  or  100  white  cattle 
with  red  ears,  we  may  presume  that  the  latter  were  the 
larger  beasts,  and  probably  belonged  to  the  primigenius  type. 
Youatt  has  remarked  that  at  the  present  day,  whenever  cattle 
■of  the  short-horn  breed  are  white,  the  extremities  of  their 
•ears  are  more  or  less  tinged  w^ith  red. 

The  cattle  which  have  run  wild  on  the  Pampas,  in  Texas, 
•and  in  two  parts  of  Africa,  have  become  of  a  nearly  uniform 
•dark  brownish-red.^     On  the  Ladrone  Islands,  in  the  Pacific 

"  Boethius    was   born   in   1470;  after   long  attending  to   the   sub- 

'  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  jeet,  he  has  found  that  white  cat- 

vol.  ii.,  1839,  p.  281;  and  vol.  iv.  tie  invariably  have  coloured  ears. 
1849,  p.  424.  °*  Azara,       '  Quadrupedes       du 

53  Youatt    on    Cattle.    1834,    p.  Paraguay,'  torn.  ii.  p.  361.     Azara 

•48:  See  also  p.  242,  on  short-horn  quotes  Buffon  for  the  feral  cattle 

cattle.       Bell,     in     his     '  British  of  Africa.    For  Texas,  see  '  Times,' 

•Quadrupeds,'  p.  423,   states  that,  Feb.  18,  1846. 


Chap.  III.  PARK-CATTLE.  87 

Ocean,  immense  herds  of  cattle,  which  were  wild  in  the  year 
1741,  are  described  as  "  milk-white,  except  their  ears,  which 
are  generally  black.""'  The  Falkland  Islands,  situated  far 
south,  with  all  the  conditions  of  life  as  different  as  it  is 
possible  to  conceive  from  those  of  the  Ladrones,  offer  a 
more  interesting  case.  Cattle  have  run  wild  there  during 
eighty  or  ninety  years;  and  in  the  southern  districts  the 
animals  are  mostly  white,  with  their  feet,  or  whole  heads,  or 
only  their  ears  black;  but  my  informant,  Admiral  Sulivan,'^ 
who  long  resided  on  these  islands,  does  not  believe  that  they 
are  ever  purely  white.  So  that  in  these  two  archipelagos  we 
see  that  the  cattle  tend  to  become  white  with  coloured  ears. 
In  other  parts  of  the  Falkland  Islands  other  colours  prevail : 
near  Port  Pleasant  brown  is  the  common  tint;  round  Mount 
Usborn,  about  half  the  animals  in  some  of  the  herds  were 
lead-  or  mouse-coloured,  which  elsewhere  is  an  unusual  tint. 
These  latter  cattle,  though  generally  inhabiting  high  land, 
breed  about  a  month  earlier  than  the  other  cattle;  and  this 
circumstance  would  aid  in  keeping  them  distinct  and  in  per- 
petuating a  peculiar  colour.  It  is  worth  recalling  to  mind 
that  blue  or  lead-coloured  marks  have  occasionally  appeared 
on  the  white  cattle  of  Chillingham.  So  plainly  different 
were  the  colours  of  the  wild  herds  in  different  parts  of  the 
Falkland  Islands,  that  in  hunting  them,  as  Admiral  Sulivan 
informs  me,  white  spots  in  one  district,  and  dark  spots  in 
another  district,  were  always  looked  out  for  on  the  distant 
hills.  In  the  intermediate  districts,  intermediate  colours 
prevailed.  Whatever  the  cause  may  be,  this  tendency  in  the 
wild  cattle  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  are  all  descended 
from  a  few  brought  from  La  Plata,  to  break  up  into  herds  of 
three  different  colours,  is  an  interesting  fact. 

Returning  to  the  several  British  breeds,  the  conspicuous 
difference  in  general  appearance  between  Short-horns,  Long- 
horns  (now  rarely  seen),  Herefords,  Highland  cattle,  Aldor- 
neys,  &c.,  must  be  familiar  to  every  one.  A  part  of  this 
difference  may  be  attributed  to  descent  from  primordially 
distinct  species;  but  we  may  feel  sure  that  there  has  been 

55  Anson's    Vovage.      8ee    Kerr  ^6  ,s:rr     also     Mr.     Maokinnon's 

and  Porter's  '  Collection,'  vol.  xii.  pamphlet  on  the  Falkland  Is- 
p.   103.  lands,  p.  24. 


88 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  III. 


a  considerable  amount  of  variation.  Even  during  the  Neo- 
lithic period,  the  domestic  cattle  were  to  a  certain  extent 
variable.  Within  recent  times  most  of  the  breeds  have  been 
modified  by  careful  and  methodical  selection.  How  strongly 
the  characters  thus  acquired  are  inherited,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  prices  realised  by  the  improved  breeds;  even  at  the 
first  sale  of  Colling's  Short-horns,  eleven  bulls  reached  an 
average  of  214L,  and  lately  Short-horn  bulls  have  been  sold 
for  a  thousand  guineas,  and  have  been  exported  to  all  quar- 
ters of  the  world. 

Some  constitutional  differences  may  be  here  noticed.  The 
Short-horns  arrive  at  maturity  far  earlier  than  the  wilder 
breeds,  such  as  those  of  Wales  or  the  Highlands.  This  fact 
has  been  shown  in  an  interesting  manner  by  Mr.  Simonds," 
who  has  given  a  table  of  the  average  period  of  their  denti- 
tion, which  iDroves  that  there  is  a  difference  of  no  less  than 
six  months  in  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  incisors.  The 
period  of  gestation,  from  observations  made  by  Tessier  on 
1131  cows,  varies  to  the  extent  of  eighty-one  days;  and  what 
is  miore  interesting,  M.  Lef  our  affirms  "  that  the  period  of 
gestation  is  longer  in  the  large  German  cattle  than  in  the 
smaller  breeds."  "*  With  respect  to  the  period  of  conception, 
it  seems  certain  that  Alderney  and  Zetland  cows  often  be- 
come pregnant  earlier  than  other  breeds.""  Lastly,  as  four 
fully  developed  mammae  is  a  generic  character  in  the  genus 
Bos,**"  it  is  worth  notice  that  with  our  domestic  cows  the  two 
rudimentary  mammse  often  become  fairly  well  developed  and 
yield  milk. 

As  numerous  breeds  are  generally  found  only  in  long- 
civilized  countries,  it  may  be  well  to  show  that  in  some  coun- 
tries inhabited  by  barbarous  races,  who  are  frequently  at  ^var 
wdth  each  other,  and  therefore  have  little  free  communica- 
tion, several  distinct  breeds  of  cattle  now  exist  or  formerly 


5-  '  The  Age  of  the  Ox,  Sheep, 
Pig,'  »S:c.,  by  Prof.  James  Si- 
moncls,  published  by  order  of  the 
Royal  Agricult.   Soc. 

'*  '  Ann.  Agrleiilt.  France,' 
April.  1837.  as  quoted  in  '  The 
Veterinary,'  vol.  xii.  p.  72.^1.  I 
quote  Tessier's  observations  from 
Youatt  on  Cattle,  p.  527. 

5^  '  The  Veterinarv,'  vol,  viii. 
page   618,    and   vol.    x.   page  268. 


Low's  '  Domest.  Animals,  >S:c.,'  p. 
297. 

60  Mr.  Oglebv.  in  '  Proc.  Zoo- 
log.  Soc.,'  18.S6."  p.  138.  and  1840, 
p.  4.  Quatrefages  quotes  Philippi 
('  Revue  des  Cours  Scientifiques,* 
Feb.  12.  1688,  p.  657).  that  the 
cattle  of  Piaeentino  have  thirteen 
dorsal  vertebrae  and  ribs  in  the 
place  of  the  ordinary  number  of 
twelve. 


t 


I, 

i 


Chap.  III.  THEIR  VARIATION.  89 

existed.  At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Leguat  observed,  in 
the  year  1720,  three  kinds."  At  the  present  day  various 
travellers  have  noticed  the  differences  in  the  breeds  in 
Southern  Africa.  Sir  Andrew  Smith  several  years  ago  re- 
marked to  me  that  the  cattle  possessed  by  the  different  tribes 
of  Caffres,  though  living  near  each  other  under  the  same 
latitude  and  in  the  same  kind  of  country,  yet  differed,  and 
he  expressed  much  surprise  at  the  fact.  Mr.  Andersson  has 
described "'  the  Damara,  Bechuana,  and  Namaqua  cattle ;  and 
he  informs  me  in  a  letter  that  the  cattle  north  of  Lake 
ISTgami  are  likewise  different,  as  Mr.  Galton  has  heard  is  also 
the  case  with  the  cattle  of  Benguela.  The  Namaqua  cattle 
in  size  and  shape  nearly  resemble  European  cattle,  and  have 
short  stout  horns  and  large  hoofs.  The  Damara  cattle  are 
very  peculiar,  being  big-boned,  with  slender  legs,  and  small 
hard  feet ;  their  tails  are  adorned  wdth  a  tuft  of  long  bushy 
hair  nearly  touching  the  ground,  and  their  horns  are  ex- 
traordinarily large.  The  Bechuana  cattle  have  even  larger 
horns,  and  there  is  now  a  skull  in  London  with  the  two  horns 
8  ft.  8^  in,  long,  as  measured  in  a  straight  line  from  tip  to 
tip,  and  no  less  than  13  ft.  5  in.  as  measured  along  their 
curvature !  Mr.  Andersson  in  his  letter  to  me  says  that, 
though  he  will  not  venture  to  describe  the  differences  between 
the  breeds  belonging  to  the  .many  different  sub-tribes,  yet 
such  certainly  exist,  as  shown  by  the  w^onderful  facility  with 
which  the  natives  discriminate  them. 

That  many  breeds  of  cattle  have  originated  through 
variation,  independently  of  descent  from  distinct  species,  we 
may  infer  from  what  we  see  in  South  America,  where  the 
genus  Bos  was  not  endemic,  and  where  the  cattle  which 
now  exist  in  such  vast  numbers  are  the  descendants  of  a 
few  imported  from  Spain  and  Portugal.  In  Columbia, 
Roulin "'  describes  two  peculiar  breeds,  namely,  pelones,  with 
extremely  thin  and  fine  hair,  and  calongos,  absolutely  naked. 
According  to  Castelnau  there  are  two  races  in  Brazil,  one 
like   European   cattle,   the   other   different,   with   remarkable 

«^  Lecuat's   Vova^e.    quoted   bv  par     divers     Savans.'     torn,     vi., 

Vasev.  in  his  'Delineations  of  the  1835.     p.     333.       For     Brazil      sre 

Ox-trihe,"  p.  132.  '  Comptes  Rendns,'  June  !•>,  1846. 

«-•  Travels    in    South    Africa,'  5fee  Azara.  'Quadrupedes  du  Para- 

pp.  317.  33G.  guay,'  torn.  ii.  pp.  359,  3G1. 

^^  '  Mem.   de  I'lnstitut  present. 


90 


CATTLE. 


Chap.  III. 


horns.  In  Paraguay,  Azara  describes  a  breed  which  cer- 
tainly originated  in  S.  America,  called  chivos,  "  because  they 
have  straight  vertical  horns,  conical,  and  very  large  at  the 
base."  He  likewise  describes  a  dwarf  race  in  Corrientes, 
with  short  legs  and  a  body  larger  than  usual.  Cattle  with- 
out horns,  and  others  with  reversed  hair,  have  also  originated 
in  Paraguay. 

Another  monstrous  breed,  called  niatas  or  natas,  of  which 
I  saw  two  small  herds  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Plata,  is 
so  remarkable  as  to  deserve  a  fuller  description.  This  breed 
bears  the  same  relation  to  other  breeds,  as  bull  or  pug  dogs 
dogs  do  to  other  dogs,  or  as  improved  pigs,  according  to 
H.  von  Nathusius,  do  to  common  pigs.*^  Riitimeyer  believes 
that  these  cattle  belong  to  the  primigenius  type.**^  The  fore- 
head is  very  short  and  broad,  with  the  nasal  end  of  the  skull, 
together  with  the  whole  plane  of  the  upper  molar-teeth, 
curved  upwards.  The  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper, 
and  has  a  corresponding  upward  curvature.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting fact  that  an  almost  similar  confirmation  characterizes, 
as  I  am  informed  by  Dr.  Falconer,  the  extinct  and  gigantic 
Sivatherium  of  India,  and  is  not  known  in  any  other  rumi- 
nant. The  upper  lip  is  much  drawn  back,  the  nostrils  are 
seated  high  up  and  are  widely  open,  the  eyes  project  out- 
wards, and  the  horns  are  large.  In  walking  the  head  is  car- 
ried low,  and  the  neck  is  short.  The  hind  legs  appear  to 
be  longer,  compared  with  the  front  legs,  than  is  usual.  The 
exposed  incisor  teeth,  the  short  head  and  upturned  nostrils, 
give  these  cattle  the  most  ludicrous,  self-confident  air  of  de- 
fiance. The  skull  which  I  presented  to  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons has  been  thus  described  by  Professor  Owen :  ^^  "  It  is 
remarkable  from  the  stunted  development  of  the  nasals,  pre- 


6*  '  Schweinesehiidel,*  1864,  s. 
104.  Nathiisius  states  that  the 
form  of  skull  characteristic  in 
the  niata  cattle  occasionally  ap- 
pears in  European  cattle:  but  he 
is  niistalien,  as  we  shall  here- 
after see,  in  supposing  that  these 
cattle  do  not  form  a  distinct  rice. 
Prof.  Wyman,  of  Cambridge, 
United  States,  informs  me  that 
the  common  codfish  presents  a 
similar  inonstrosity,  called  by  the 
fishermen  "  bull-dog  cod."  Prof. 
Wyman     also     concluded,     after 


making  numerous  inquiries  in  La 
Plata,  that  the  niata  cattle  trans- 
mit their  peculiarities  or  form  of 
race. 

«5  Ueber  Art  des  zahmen  Eu- 
rop.   Rindes,'    1866,    s.   28. 

•"^  '  Descriptive  Cat.  of  Ost. 
Collect,  of  College  of  Surgeons,' 
1853,  p.  624.  Vasey.  In  his  '  De- 
lineations of  the  Ox-tribe,'  has 
given  a  figure  of  this  skull:  and 
I  sent  a  photograph  of  it  to  Prof. 
Riitimeyer. 


i 


Chap.  III.  CAUSES  OF  VARIATION.  91 

maxillaries,  and  fore-part  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  un- 
usually curved  upwards  to  come  into  contact  with  the  pre- 
maxillaries.  The  nasal  bones  are  about  one-third  the  ordi- 
nary length,  but  retain  almost  their  normal  breadth.  The 
triangular  vacuity  is  left  between  them,  the  frontal  and 
lachrymal,  which  latter  bone  articulates  with  the  premaxil- 
lary,  and  thus  excludes  the  maxillary  from  any  junction  with 
the  nasal."  So  that  even  the  connection  of  some  of  the 
bones  is  changed.  Other  differences  might  be  added:  thus 
the  plane  of  the  condyles  is  somewhat  modified,  and  the  ter- 
minal edge  of  the  premaxillaries  forms  an  arch.  In  fact, 
on  comparison  with  the  skull  of  a  conunon  ox,  scarcely  a 
single  bone  presents  the  same  exact  shape,  and  the  whole 
skull  has  a  wonderfully  different  appearance. 

The  first  brief  published  notice  of  this  race  was  by  Azara,. 
between  the  years  1783-96;  but  Don  F.  Muniz,  of  Luxan, 
who  has  kindly  collected  information  for  me,  states  that 
about  1760  these  cattle  were  kept  as  curiosities  near  Buenos. 
Ayres.  Their  origin  is  not  positively  known,  but  they  must 
have  originated  subsequently  to  the  year  1552,  when  cattle 
were  first  introduced.  Senor  Muniz  informs  me  that  the 
breed  is  believed  to  have  originated  with  the  Indians  south- 
ward of  the  Plata.  Even  to  this  day  those  reared  near  the 
Plata  show  their  less  civilized  nature  in  being  fiercer  than 
common  cattle,  and  in  the  cow,  if  visited  too  often,  easily 
deserting  her  first  calf.  The  breed  is  very  true,  and  a  niata 
bull  and  cow  invariably  produce  niata  calves.  The  breed  has 
already  lasted  at  least  a  century.  A  niata  bull  crossed  with, 
a  common  cow,  and  the  reverse  cross,  yield  offspring  having- 
an  intermediate  character,  but  with  the  niata  character 
strongly  displayed.  According  to  Senor  Muniz,  there  is  the 
clearest  evidence,  contrary  to  the  common  belief  of  agricul- 
turists in  analogous  cases,  that  the  niata  cow  when  crossed 
with  a  common  bull  transmits  her  peculiarities  more  strongly 
than  does  the  niata  bull  when  crossed  with  a  common  cow. 
When  the  pasture  is  tolerably  long,  these  cattle  feed  as  well 
as  common  cattle  w4th  their  tongue  and  palate;  but  during- 
the  great  droughts,  when  so  many  animals  perish  on  the 
Pampas,  the  niata  breed  lies  under  a  great  disadvantage,  and 
would,  if  not  attended  to,  become  extinct;  for  the  common 


92  CATTLE.  Chap.  III. 

cattle,  like  horses,  are  able  to  keep  alive  by  browsing  with 
their  lips  on  the  twigs  of  trees  and  on  reeds :  this  the  niatas 
cannot  so  well  do,  as  their  lips  do  not  join,  and  hence  they 
are  found  to  perish  before  the  common  cattle.  This  strikes 
me  as  a  good  illustration  of  how  little  we  are  able  to  judge 
from  the  ordinary  habits  of  an  animal,  on  what  circum- 
stances, occurring  only  at  long  intervals  of  time,  its  rarity 
or  extinction  may  depend.  It  shows  us,  also,  how  natural 
selection  would  have  determined  the  rejection  of  the  niata 
modification  had  it  arisen  in  a  state  of  nature. 

Having  described  the  semi-monstrous  niata  breed,  I  may 
allude  to  a  white  bull,  said  to  have  been  brought  from  Africa, 
which  was  exhibited  in  London  in  1829,  and  wdiich  has  been 
well  figured  by  Mr.  Harvey.*"  It  had  a  hump,  and  was  fur- 
nished with  a  mane.  The  dewlap  was  peculiar,  being  divided 
between  its  fore-legs  into  parallel  divisions.  Its  lateral  hoofs 
were  annually  shed,  and  grew  to  the  length  of  five  or  six 
inches.  The  eye  w^as  very  peculiar,  being  remarkably  promi- 
nent, and  "  resembled  a  cup  and  ball,  thus  enabling  the  ani- 
mal to  see  on  all  sides  with  equal  ease;  the  pupil  was  small 
and  oval,  or  rather  a  parallelogram  with  the  ends  cut  off,  and 
lying  transversely  across  the  ball."  A  new  and  strange  breed 
might  probably  have  been  formed  by  careful  breeding  and 
selection  from  this  animal. 

I  have  often  speculated  on  the  probable  causes  through 
which  each  separate  district  in  Great  Britain  came  to  possess 
in  former  times  its  own  peculiar  breed  of  cattle;  and  the 
question  is,  perhaps,  even  more  perplexing  in  the  case  of 
Southern  Africa.  We  now  know  that  the  diiferences  may 
be  in  part  attributed  to  descent  from  distinct  species;  but 
this  cause  is  far  from  sufiicient.  Have  the  slight  differences 
in  climate  and  in  the  nature  of  the  pasture,  in  the  different 
districts  of  Britain,  directly  induced  corresponding  differ- 
ences in  the  cattle?  We  have  seen  that  the  semi-wild  cattle 
in  the  several  British  parks  are  not  identical  in  colouring 
or  size,  and  that  some  degree  of  selection  has  been  requisite 
to  keep  them  true.  It  is  almost  certain  that  abundant  food 
given  during  many  generations  directly  affects  the  size  of 

•'^  Loudon's   '  Magazine  of  Nat.        rate  figures  are  given  of  the  ani- 
-Hist.,'  vol.  i.,  1829,  p.  113.     Sepa-       mal,  its  hoofs,  eye,  and  dewlap. 


I 


■» 


1 


Chap.  III.  CAUSES  OF  VARIATION.  93 

a  breed."'  That  climate  directly  affects  the  thickness  of  the 
skin  and  the  hair  is  likewise  certain:  thus  Koulin  asserts"" 
that  the  hides  of  the  feral  cattle  on  the  hot  Llanos  "  are 
always  much  less  heavy  than  those  of  the  cattle  raised  on 
the  high  platform  of  Bogota;  and  that  these  hides  yield 
in  weight  and  in  thickness  of  hair  to  those  of  the  cattle  which 
have  run  wild  on  the  lofty  Paramos."  The  same  difference 
has  been  observed  in  the  hides  of  the  cattle  reared  on  the 
bleak  Falkland  Islands  and  on  the  temperate  Pampas.  Low 
has  remarked  '"  that  the  cattle  which  inhabit  the  more  humid 
parts  of  Britain  have  longer  hair  and  thicker  skins  than  other 
British  cattle.  When  we  compare  highly  improved  stall-fed 
cattle  with  the  wilder  breeds,  or  compare  mountain  and  low- 
land breeds,  we  cannot  doubt  that  an  active  life  leading  to 
the  free  use  of  the  limbs  and  lungs,  affects  the  shape  and 
proportions  of  the  whole  body.  It  is  probable  that  some 
breeds,  such  as  the  semi-monstrous  niata  cattle,  and  some 
peculiarities,  such  as  being  hornless,  &c.,  have  appeared  sud- 
denly owing  to  wdiat  we  may  call  in  our  ignorance  spon- 
taneous variation ;  but  even  in  this  case  a  I'ude  kind  of  selec- 
tion is  necessary,  and  the  animals  thus  characterized  must 
be  at  least  partially  separated  from  others.  This  degree  of 
care,  however,  has  sometimes  been  taken  even  in  little-civil- 
ized districts,  where  we  should  least  have  expected  it,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  niata,  chivo,  and  hornless  cattle  in  S.  America. 
That  methodical  selection  has  done  w^onders  within  a 
recent  period  in  modifying  our  cattle,  no  one  doubts.  Dur- 
ing the  process  of  methodical  selection  it  has  occasionally 
happened  that  deviations  of  structure,  more  strongly  pro- 
nounced than  mere  individual  differences,  yet  by  no  means 
deserving  to  be  called  monstrosities,  have  been  taken  advan- 
tage of:  thus  the  famous  Long-horn  Bull,  Shakespeare, 
though  of  the  pure  Canley  stock,  "  scarcely  inherited  a  single 
point  of  the  long-horned  breed,  his  horns  excepted ;  "  "  yet  in 
the  hands  of  Mr.  Fowler,  this  bull  greatly  improved  his 
race.     We  have  also  reason  to  believe  that  selection,  carried 

«s  Low.  '  Domesticated  Animals  ^^  Idem,  pp.  304,  368,  &c. 

of  the  British  Isles,'  p.  264.  '''■  Youatt  on  Cattle,   p.  103.     A 

«"•*  Mem.    de    I'lustitut    present.  full  account  of  this  bull  is  takeu 

par  divers  Savans,'  tom.  vi.  1835,  from  Marshall, 
p.  332. 


94  SHEEP.  Chap.  Ill, 

on  so  far  unconsciously  that  there  was  at  no  one  time  any  dis- 
tinct intention  to  improve  or  change  the  breed,  has  in  the. 
course  of  time  modified  most  of  our  cattle;  for  by  this 
process,  aided  by  more  abundant  food,  all  the  lowland  Brit- 
ish breeds  have  increased  greatly  in  size  and  in  early  ma- 
turity since  the  reign  of  Henry  VII."  It  should  never  be 
forgotten  that  many  animals  have  to  be  annually  slaughtered  ; 
so  that  each  owner  must  determine  which  shall  be  killed  and 
which  preserved  for  breeding.  In  every  district,  as  Youatt 
has  remarked,  there  is  a  prejudice  in  favour  of  the  native 
breed;  so  that  animals  possessing  qualities,  whatever  they 
may  be,  which  are  most  valued  in  each  district,  will  be  often- 
est  preserved;  and  this  unmethodical  selection  assuredly  will 
in  the  long  run  affect  the  character  of  the  whole  breed.  But 
it  may  be  asked,  can  this  rude  kind  of  selection  have  been 
practised  by  barbarians  such  as  those  of  southern  Africa?  In 
a  future  chapter  on  Selection  we  shall  see  that  this  has  cer- 
tainly occurred  to  some  extent.  Therefore,  looking  to  the 
origin  of  the  many  breeds  of  cattle  which  formerly  inhabited 
the  several  districts  of  Britain,  I  conclude  that,  although 
slight  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  climate,  food,  &g.,  as 
well  as  changed  habits  of  life,  aided  by  correlation  of  growth, 
and  the  occasional  appearance  from  unknown  causes  of  con- 
siderable deviations  of  structure,  have  all  probably  played 
their  parts;  yet  that  the  occasional  preservation  in  each  dis- 
trict of  those  individual  animals  which  were  most  valued  by 
each  owner  has  perhaps  been  even  more  effective  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  several  British  breeds.  As  soon  as  two  or 
more  breeds  were  formed  in  any  district,  or  when  new  breeds 
descended  from  distinct  species  were  introduced,  their  cross- 
ing, especially  if  aided  by  some  selection,  will  have  multiplied 
the  number  and  modified  the  characters  of  the  older  breeds. 

Sheep. 

I  SHALL  treat  this  subject  briefly.  Most  authors  look  at 
our  domestic  sheep  as  descended  from  several  distinct  species. 
Mr.  Blyth,  who  has  carefully  attended  to  the  subject,  believes 
that  fourteen  wild  species  now  exist,  but  "  that  not  one  of 
them  can  be  identified  as  the  progenitor  of  any  one  of  the 
'-  Youatt  on  Cattle,  116.    Lord  Spencer  has  written  on  this  subject. 


€hap.  III.  TIIETR  VARIATION.  95 

interminable  domestic  races."  M.  Gervais  thinks  that  there 
;are  six  species  of  Ovis,'"  but  that  our  domestic  sheep  form 
a  distinct  genus,  now  completely  extinct.  A  German  natu- 
ralist'^  believes  that  our  sheep  descend  from  ten  aboriginally 
distinct  species,  of  which  only  one  is  still  living  in  a  wild 
state!  Another  ingenious  observer,"  though  not  a  naturalist, 
with  a  bold  defiance  of  everything  known  on  geographical 
distribution,  infers  that  the  sheep  of  Great  Britain  alone 
-are  the  descendants  of  eleven  endemic  British  forms !  Under 
such  a  hopeless  state  of  doubt  it  would  be  useless  for  my  pur- 
pose to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  several  breeds;  but  a 
few  remarks  may  be  added. 

Sheep  have  been  domesticated  from  a  very  ancient  period. 
Hiitimeyer '"  found  in  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings  the  remains 
of  a  small  breed,  with  thin  tall  legs,  and  horns  like  those  of 
a  goat,  thus  differing  somewhat  from  any  kind  now  known. 
Almost  every  country  has  its  own  peculiar  breed;  and  many 
countries  have  several  breeds  differing  greatly  from  each 
other.  One  of  the  most  strongly  marked  races  is  an  Eastern 
one  with  a  long  tail,  including,  according  to  Pallas,  twenty 
vertebras,  and  so  loaded  with  fat  that  it  is  sometimes  placed 
on  a  truck,  which  is  dragged  about  by  the  living  animal. 
These  sheep,  though  ranked  by  Fitzinger  as  a  distinct  abo- 
riginal form,  bear  in  their  drooping  ears  the  stamp  of  long 
domestication.  This  is  likewise  the  case  with  those  sheep 
which  have  two  great  masses  of  fat  on  the  rump,  with  the 
tail  in  a  rudimentary  condition.  The  Angola  variety  of  the 
long-tailed  race  has  curious  masses  of  fat  on  the  back  of 
the  head  and  beneath  the  jaws."  Mr.  Hodgson  in  an  admi- 
rable paper '^  on  the  sheep  of  the  Himalaya  infers  from  the 
distribution  of  the  several  races,  "  that  this  caudal  augmenta- 
tion in  most  of  its  phases  is  an  instance  of  degeneracy  in 
these  pre-eminently  Alpine  animals."     The  horns  present  an 

"  Blyth  on  the  genus  Ovis,   in  Racen  des  Zahmen  Schafes,'  1800, 

'  Annals    and    Maj?.    of   Nat.    His-  s.  86. 

torv,'  vol.  vii.,  1841,  p.  261.     With  "  J.  Anderson,  *  Recreations  in 

respect   to   the   parentage   of  the  Agriculture  and  Natural  History, 

breeds,   see  Mr.    Blyth's  excellent  vol.  ii.   p.  264. 
articles    in     'Land    and    Water,'  ^s  •  pfahlbauton,'   s.   12.     l')3. 

1867,  pp.  134,  156.     Gervais,  'Hist.  "  Youatt  on   Sheep,   p.   120.^ 

Nat.  des  Mammiferes,'  1855,  torn.  ^s  .  journal  of  the  Asiatic  boc. 

ii.  p.  191.  of    Bengal,'    vol.    xvi.    pp.    1007, 

'*  Dr.  L.  Fitzinger,  '  Ueber  die  1016. 


96  SHEEP.  Chap.  III. 

endless  diversity  in  character;  being  not  rarely  absent,  espe- 
cially in  the  female  sex,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  amounting 
to  four  or  even  eight  in  number.  The  horns,  when  nu- 
merous, arise  from  a  crest  on  the  frontal  bone,  which  is  ele- 
vated in  a  peculiar  manner.  It  is  remarkable  that  multi- 
plicity of  horns  "  is  generally  accompanied  by  great  length 
and  coarseness  of  the  fleece."  ''*  This  correlation,  however,  is 
far  from  being  general;  for  instance,  I  am  informed  by  Mr. 
D.  Forbes,  that  the  Spanish  sheep  in  Chile  resemble,  in  fleece 
and  in  all  other  characters,  their  parent  merino-race,  except 
that  instead  of  a  pair  they  generally  bear  four  horns.  The 
existence  of  a  pair  of  mammae  is  a  generic  character  in  the 
genus  Ovis  as  well  as  in  several  allied  forms ;  nevertheless,  as 
Mr.  Hodgson  has  remarked,  "  this  character  is  not  absolutely 
constant  even  among  the  true  and  proper  sheep :  for  I  have 
more  than  once  met  with  Cagias  (a  sub-Himalayan  domestic 
race)  possessed  of  four  teats."  ****  This  case  is  the  more 
remarkable  as,  when  any  part  or  organ  is  present  in  re- 
duced number  in  comparison  with  the  same  part  in  allied 
groups,  it  usually  is  subject  to  little  variation.  The  pres- 
ence of  interdigital  pits  has  likewise  been  considered 
as  a  generic  distinction  in  sheep ;  but  Isidore  Geoffrey " 
has  shown  that  these  pits  or  pouches  are  absent  in  some 
breeds. 

In  sheep  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  characters,  which 
have  apparently  been  acquired  under  domestication,  to  be- 
come attached  either  exclusively  to  the  male  sex  or  to  be 
more  highly  developed  in  this  than  in  the  other  sex.  Thus  in 
many  breeds  the  horns  are  deficient  in  the  ewe,  though  this 
likewise  occurs  occasionally  with  the  female  of  the  wild 
musmon.  In  the  rams  of  the  Wallachian  breed,  "  the  horns 
spring  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  frontal  bone,  and 
then  take  a  beautiful  spiral  form;  in  the  ewes  they  protrude 
nearly  at  right  angles  from  the  head,  and  then  become  twisted  * 
in  a  singular  manner."  *"  Mr.  Hodgson  states  that  the  ex-  [; 
traordinarily  arched  nose  or  chaflFron,  Avhich  is  so  highly 
developed  in  several  foreign  breeds,  is  characteristic  of  the 


"-  Youatt    on    Sheep,    pp.  142-  «'  '  Hist.    Nat.    Gen.,'    torn.    iii. 

169.  p.  43r». 

80  '  Journal  Asiat.  Soc.  of  Ben-  ^-  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  138. 

gal,°  vol.  xvi.,  1847,  p.  1015. 


'I 


Chap.  III.  THEIR  VARIATION.  97 

ram  alone,  and  apparently  is  the  result  of  domestication .*" 
I  hear  from  Mr.  Blyth  that  the  accumulation  of  fat  in  the 
fat-tailed  sheep  of  the  plains  of  India  is  greater  in  the  male 
than  in  the  female;  and  Fitzinger"  remarks  that  the  mane 
in  the  African  maned  race  is  far  more  developed  in  the  ram 
than  in  the  ewe. 

Different  races  of  sheep,  like  cattle,  present  constitutional 
diiferences.  Thus  the  improved  breeds  arrive  at  maturity  at 
an  early  age,  as  has  been  well  shown  by  Mr.  Simonds  through 
their  early  average  period  of  dentition.  The  several  races 
have  become  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  pasture  and  cli- 
mate :  for  instance,  no  one  can  rear  Leicester  sheep  on  moun- 
tainous regions,  where  Cheviots  flourish.  As  Youatt  has 
remarked,  "  In  all  the  different  districts  of  Great  Britain 
we  find  various  breeds  of  sheep  beautifully  adapted  to  the 
locality  which  they  occupy.  No  one  knows  their  origin; 
they  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  climate,  iDasturage,  and  the 
locality  on  which  they  graze ;  they  seem  to  have  been  formed 
for  it  and  by  it."  ^^  Marshall  relates '"'  that  a  flock  of  heavy 
Lincolnshire  and  light  Norfolk  sheep  which  had  been  bred 
together  in  a  large  sheep-w^alk,  part  of  which  was  low,  rich, 
and  moist,  and  another  part  high  and  dry,  with  benty  grass, 
when  turned  out,  regularly  separated  from  each  other;  the 
heavy  sheep  drawing  off  to  the  rich  soil,  and  the  lighter 
sheep  to  their  own  soil ;  so  that  "  whilst  there  was  plenty  of 
grass  the  two  breeds  kept  themselves  as  distinct  as  rooks  and 
pigeons."  Numerous  sheep  from  various  parts  of  the  world 
have  been  brought  during  a  long  course  of  years  to  the 
Zoological  Gardens  of  London;  but  as  Youatt,  who  attended 
the  animals  as  a  veterinary  surgeon,  remarks,  "  few  or  none 
die  of  the  rot,  but  they  are  phthisical;  not  one  of  them  from 
a  torrid  climate  lasts  out  the  second  year,  and  when  they 
die  their  lungs  are  tuberculated."  ^^  There  is  very  good  evi- 
dence that  English  breeds  of  sheep  will  not  succeed  in 
France.^^     Even   in   certain   parts    of   England   it   has    been 

*^  '  Journal  Asiat.   Soc.   of  Bon-  same    subject,     sec    oxcellont     re- 
gal,' vol.  xvi.,  1S47.  pp.  1015.  1016.  marks   in   '  Gardener's  Chronicle.' 

^■''Rucen  des  Zahmen  Schafes,'  1858,   p.  8G8.     For  experiments  In 

s.  77.  crossing      Clieviot      sheep      with 

*^  '  Rural  Economy  of  Norfolk,'  Leicesters,  see  Youatt,  p.  325. 

vol.  ii.  p.  130.  **' Youatt  on  Sheep,  note,  p.  401. 

^«  Youatt  on  Sheep,  p.  312.     On  ^^  M.    Maliugie-Nouel    '  Journal 


I  \ 


98  SHEEP.  Chap.  III. 

found  impossible  to  keep  certain  breeds  of  sheep;  thus  on 
3,  farm  on  the  banks  of  the  Ouse,  the  Leicester  sheep  were 
so  rapidly  destroyed  by  pleuritis  ^'''  that  the  owner  could  not 
keep  them;  the  coarser-skinned  sheep  never  being  affected. 
The  period  of  gestation  was  formerly  thought  to  be  of 
so  unalterable  a  character,  that  a  supposed  difference  of  this 
kind  between  the  wolf  and  the  dog  was  esteemed  a  sure  sign 
of  specific  distinction;  but  we  have  seen  that  the  period  is 
shorter  in  the  improved  breeds  of  the  pig,  and  in  the  larger 
breeds  of  the  ox,  than  in  other  breeds  of  these  two  animals. 
And  now  we  know,  on  the  excellent  authority  of  Hermann 
Ton  Nathusius,""  that  Merino  and  Southdown  sheep,  when 
both  have  long  been  kept  under  exactly  the  same  conditions, 
■differ  in  their  average  period  of  gestation,  as  is  seen  in  the 
following  Table : — 

Merinos       150.3  days. 

Southdowns        144.2      " 

Half-bred  Merinos  and  Southdowns  .  .  146.3      " 

I  blood  of  Southdown 145.5      " 

i       "        "  "  144.2 


(f 


In  this  graduated  difference  in  cross-bred  animals  having 
different  proportions  of  Southdown  blood,  we  see  how  strictly 
the  two  periods  of  gestation  have  been  transmitted.  ISTathu- 
sius  remarks  that,  as  Southdowns  grow  with  remarkable 
rapidity  after  birth,  it  is  not  surprising  that  their  foetal  de- 
Tclopment  should  have  been  shortened.  It  is  of  course  pos- 
sible that  the  difference  in  these  two  breeds  may  be  due  to 
their  descent  from  distinct  parent-species;  but  as  the  early 
maturity  of  the  Southdowns  has  long  been  carefully  at- 
tended to  by  breeders,  the  difference  is  more  probably  the 
result  of  such  attention.  Lastly,  the  fecundity  of  the  several 
breeds  differs  much;  some  generally  producing  twins  or  even 
triplets  at  a  birth,  of  which  fact  the  curious  Shangai  sheep 
(with  their  truncated  and  rudimentary  ears,  and  great  Roman 
noses),  lately  exhibited  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  offer  a 
remarkable  instance. 

R.  Agricnlt.  Soc.,'  vol.   xiv.,  1853,  89  <Tjie  ye^-prinary,' vol.  x.  p.217. 

p.   14.      Translated   and   therefore  ^'^  A  translation  of  his  paper  is 

approved    by    a    great    authority,  given    in    '  Bull.    Soc.    Imp.    d'Ac- 

Mr.  Pusey.  climat.,'  torn,  ix.,  1862,  p.  723. 


Chap.  III. 


THEIR  VARIATIO:^. 


99 


Sheep  are  perhaps  more  readily  affected  by  the  direct 
action  of  the  conditions  of  life  to  which  they  have  been 
exposed  than  almost  any  other  domestic  animal.  According 
to  Pallas,  and  more  recently  according-  to  Erman,  the  fat- 
tailed  Kirg-hisian  sheep,  when  bred  for  a  few  generations 
in  Russia,  degenerate,  and  the  mass  of  fat  dwindles  away, 
"  the  scanty  and  bitter  herbage  of  the  steppes  seems  so  essen- 
tial to  their  development."  Pallas  makes  an  analogous  state- 
ment with  respect  to  one  of  the  Crimean  breeds.  Burnes 
states  that  the  Karakool  breed,  which  produces  a  fine,  curled, 
black,  and  valuable  fleece,  when  removed  from  its  own  canton 
near  Bokhara  to  Persia  or  to  other  quarters,  loses  its  peculiar 
fleece."*^  In  all  such  cases,  however,  it  may  be  that  a  change 
of  any  kind  in  the  conditions  of  life  causes  variability  and 
consequent  loss  of  character,  and  not  that  certain  conditions 
are  necessary  for  the  development  of  certain  characters. 

Great  heat,  however,  seems  to  act  directly  on  the  fleece; 
several  accounts  have  been  published  of  the  change  which 
sheep  imported  from  Europe  undergo  in  the  West  Indies. 
Dr.  Nicholson  of  Antigua  informs  me  that,  after  the  third 
generation,  the  wool  disappears  from  the  whole  body,  except 
over  the  loins;  and  the  animal  then  appears  like  a  goat  with 
a  dirty  door-mat  on  its  back.  A  similar  change  is  said  to 
take  place  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.^^  On  the  other  hand, 
many  wool-bearing  sheep  live  on  the  hot  plains  of  India. 
Rouiin  asserts  that  in  the  lower  and  heated  valleys  of  the 
Cordillera,  if  the  lambs  are  sheared  as  soon  as  the  wool  has 
grown  to  a  certain  thickness,  all  goes  on  afterwards  as  usual; 
but  if  not  sheared,  the  wool  detaches  itself  in  flakes,  and 
short  shining  hair  like  that  on  a  goat  is  produced  ever  after- 
wards. This  curious  result  seems  merely  to  be  an  exag- 
gerated tendency  natural  to  the  Merino  breed,  for  as  a  great 
authority,  namely,  Lord  Somerville,  remarks,  "  the  wool  of 


81  Erman's  'Travels  in  Siberia  ' 
(Ens.  trans.),  vol.  i.  p.  228.  For 
Pallas  on  the  fat-tailed  sheep,  I 
quote  from  Anderson's  account  of 
the  '  Sheep  of  Russia,'  1794.  p.  34. 
With  respect  to  the  Crimean 
sheep,  .sec  Pallas'  *  Travels  '  (Eng. 
trans.),  vol.  ii.  p.  454.  For  the 
Karakocl  sheep.  see  Burnes' 
'  Travels  in  Bokhara,'  vol.  iii.  p. 
151. 

8 


9-  See  Report  of  the  Directors 
of  the  Sierra  I.eone  rompany,  as 
quoted  in  White's  '  (Jradation  of 
Man,'  p.  95.  With  respect  to  the 
chancre  which  sheep  undergo  in 
the  West  Indies,  see  also  Dr. 
Daw,  in  •  Edin.  New.  Phil.  .Jour- 
nal,' Jan.,  1S.52.  For  the  state- 
ment made  by  Roidin,  see  '  Mera. 
de  rinstitut  present,  par  divers 
Savans,'  torn,  vi.,  1S35,  p.  347. 


100 


SHEEP. 


Chap.  III. 


our  Merino  sheep  after  shear-time  is  hard  and  coarse  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  render  it  ahnost  impossible  to  suppose  that 
the  same  animal  could  bear  wool  so  opposite  in  quality,  com- 
pared to  that  which  has  been  clipped  from  it:  as  the  cold 
weather  advances,  the  fleeces  recover  their  soft  quality." 
As  in  sheep  of  all  breeds  the  fleece  naturally  consists  of 
longer  and  coarser  hair  covering  shorter  and  softer  wool,  the 
change  which  it  often  undergoes  in  hot  climates  is  probably 
merely  a  case  of  unequal  development;  for  even  with  those 
sheep  which  like  goats  are  covered  with  hair,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  underlying  wool  may  always  be  found."'  In  the  wild 
mountain-sheep  {Ovus  montana)  of  Xorth  America  there  is 
an  analogous  annual  change  of  coat ;  "  the  wool  begins  to 
drop  out  in  early  spring,  leaving  in  its  place  a  coat  of  hair 
resembling  that  of  the  elk,  a  change  of  pelage  quite  different 
in  character  from  the  ordinary  thickening  of  the  coat  or  hair, 
common  to  all  furred  animals  in  winter, — for  instance,  in  the 
horse,  the  cow,  &c.,  which  shed  their  winter  coat  in  the 
spring. 

A  slight  difference  in  climate  or  pasture  sometimes 
slightly  affects  the  fleece,  as  has  been  observed  even  in  dif- 
ferent districts  in  England,  and  is  well  shown  by  the  great 
softness  of  the  wool  brought  from  Southern  Australia.  But 
it  should  be  observed,  as  Youatt  repeatedly  insists,  that  the 
tendency  to  change  may  generally  be  counteracted  by  careful 
selection.  M.  Lasterye,  after  discussing  this  subject,  sums 
up  as  follows :  "  The  preservation  of  the  Merino  race  in  its 
utmost  purity  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  the  marshes 
of  Holland,  and  under  the  rigorous  climate  of  Sweden,  fur- 
nishes an  additional  support  of  this  my  unalterable  principle, 
that  fine-woolled  sheep  may  be  kept  wherever  industrious 
men  and  intelligent  breeders  exist." 

That  methodical  selection  has  effected  great  changes  in 
several  breeds  of  sheep  no  one  who  knows  anything  on  the 
subject,  entertains  a  doubt.  The  case  of  the  Southdowns,  as 
improved  by  Ellman,   offers   perhaps   the   most   striking   in- 


93  Yoiintt  on  SliPep.  p.  69, 
where  Lord  Somerville  is  qiioterl. 
See  p.  117,  on  the  presence  of 
wool  nnder  the  hair.  "With  re- 
spect to  the  fleeces  of  Australian 
sheep,  p.  185.     Ou  selection  eoun- 


teractin?  anv  tendency  to  change, 
sec  pp.   70,    117,    120.    IGS. 

»*  Andulion  and  Bachman.  'The 
Quadrupeds  of  North  America,' 
184G,   vol.   V.  p.   365. 


Chap.  III.  CAUSES   OF  VARIATION.  101 

stance.  Unconscious  or  occasional  selection  has  likewise 
slowly  produced  a  great  effect,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapters 
on  Selection.  That  crossing  has  largely  modified  some 
breeds,  no  one  who  will  study  what  has  been  written  on  this 
subject — for  instance,  Mr.  Spooner's  paper — will  dispute; 
but  to  produce  uniformity  in  a  crossed  breed,  careful  selec- 
tion and  "  rigorous  w^eeding,"  as  this  author  expresses  it,  are 
indispensable.''^ 

In  some  few  instances  new  breeds  have  suddenly  origi- 
nated; thus,  in  1791,  a  ram-lamb  was  born  in  Massachusetts, 
having  short  crooked  legs  and  a  long  back,  like  a  turnspit- 
dog.  From  this  one  lamb  the  otter  or  ancon  semi-monstrous 
breed  w^as  raised;  as  these  sheep  could  not  leap  over  the 
fences,  it  was  thought  that  they  would  be  valuable;  but  they 
have  been  supplanted  by  merinos,  and  thus  exterminated. 
The  sheep  are  remarkable  from  transmitting  their  character 
so  truly  that  Colonel  Humphreys "''  never  heard  of  "  but  one 
questionable  case  "  of  an  ancon  ram  and  ewe  not  producing 
ancon  offspring.  When  they  are  crossed  wdth  other  breeds 
the  offspring,  with  rare  exceptions,  instead  of  being  inter- 
mediate in  character,  perfectly  resemble  either  parent;  even 
one  of  twins  has  resembled  one  parent  and  the  second  the 
other.  Lastly,  "  the  ancons  have  been  observed  to  keep  to- 
gether, separating  themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  when 
put  into  enclosures  with  other  sheep." 

A  more  interesting  case  has  been  recorded  in  the  Report 
of  the  Juries  for  the  Great  Exhibition  (1851),  namely,  the 
production  of  a  merino  ram-lamb  on  the  Mauchamp  farm, 
in  1828,  which  was  remarkable  for  its  long-,  smooth,  straight, 
and  silky  w^ool.  By  the  year  1833  M.  Graux  had  raised  rams 
enough  to  serve  his  whole  flock,  and  after  a  few  more  years 
he  was  able  to  sell  stock  of  his  new^  breed.  So  peculiar  and 
valuable  is  the  wool,  that  it  sells  at  25  per  cent,  above  the 
best  merino  wool:  even  the  fleeces  of  half-bred  animals  are 
valuable  and  are  known  in  France  as  the  "  Mauchamp- 
merino."  It  is  interesting,  as  showing  how  generally  any 
marked  deviation  of  structure  is  accompanied  by  other  devia- 

»5  '  Journal  of  R.  Agricult.  Soc.  '■>"  '  Philosoph.       Transactions,' 

of    Eiij^land,'    vol.    xx.,     part    il.,        Loudon,   1813,   p.  88. 
W.  C.  Spoouer  on  cross-Breeding. 


102  GOATS.  Chap.  III. 

tions,  that  the  first  ram  and  his  immediate  offspring  were  of 
small  size,  with  large  heads,  long  necks,  narrow  chests,  and 
long  flanks;  but  these  blemishes  were  removed  by  judicious 
crosses  and  selection.  The  long  smooth  wool  was  also  cor- 
related with  smooth  horns;  and  as  horns  and  hair  are  ho- 
mologous structures,  we  can  understand  the  meaning  of  this 
correlation.  If  the  Mauchamp  and  ancon  breeds  had  origi- 
nated a  century  or  two  ago,  we  should  have  had  no  record 
of  their  birth;  and  many  a  naturalist  would  have  no  doubt 
have  insisted,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  Mauchamp  race, 
that  they  had  each  descended  from,  or  been  crossed  with, 
some  unknown  aboriginal  form. 

Goats. 

From  the  recent  researches  of  M.  Brandt,  most  natural- 
ists now  believe  that  all  our  goats  are  descended  from  the 
Capra  cegagrus  of  the  mountains  of  Asia,  possibly  mingled 
with  the  allied  Indian  species  C.  falconeri  of  India.**'  In 
Switzerland,  during  the  neolithic  period,  the  domestic  goat 
was  commoner  than  the  sheep;  and  this  very  ancient  race 
differed  in  no  respect  from  that  now  common  in  Switzerland."^ 
At  the  present  time,  the  many  races  found  in  several  parts 
of  the  w^orld  differ  greatly  from  each  other;  nevertheless,  as 
far  as  they  have  been  tried,"**  they  are  all  quite  fertile  when 
crossed.  So  numerous  are  the  breeds,  that  Mr.  G.  Clark  ^°" 
has  described  eight  distinct  kinds  imported  into  the  one 
island  of  Mauritius.  The  ears  of  one  kind  were  enormously 
developed,  being,  as  measured  by  Mr.  Clark,  no  less  than  19 
inches  in  length  and  4|  inches  in  breadth.  As  with  cattle, 
the  mammae  of  those  breeds  which  are  regularly  milked  be- 
come greatly  developed ;  and,  as  Mr.  Clark  remarks,  "  it  is  not 
rare  to  see  their  teats  touching  the  ground."  The  following 
cases  are  worth  notice  as  presenting  unusual  points  of  varia- 
tion.    According  to  Godron,"^  the  mammae  differ  greatly  in 

9"  Isidore   Geoffrov    St.-Hilaire,  ^s  Riitimeyer,  '  Pfablbauten,'  s. 

'  Hist.    Nat.    Generale,'    torn.    iii.  127. 

p.    87.       Mr.     Blvth     (*  Land    and  9«  Godron,    '  De  I'Espece,'   torn. 

Water,'    18()7,    p.'  87)    lias   arrived  i.  p.  402. 

at    a    similar    conclusion,    but    be  i""  '  Annals    and    Mae.    of    Nat. 

tbinks  tbat  certain  Eastern  races  Histor.v,'     vol.     ii.     (2ud     series), 

may  perbaps  l)e  in  part  descended  1848.  p.  3fi.S. 

froin  the  Asiatic  markbor.  i°i  '  De  I'Espece,'  tom.  i.  p.  406. 


Chap.  III. 


GOATS. 


103 


shape  in  different  breeds,  being  elongated  in  the  common  goat, 
hemispherical  in  the  Angora  race,  and  bilobed  and  diver- 
gent in  the  goats  of  Syria  and  Nubia.  According  to  this 
same  author,  the  males  of  certain  breeds  have  lost  their  usual 
offensive  odour.  In  one  of  the  Indian  breeds  the  males  and 
females  have  horns  of  widely-different  shapes ;  ^""  and  in  some 
breeds  the  females  are  destitute  of  horns.'"*  M.  Kamu  of 
Nancy  informs  me  that  many  of  the  goats  there  bear  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  throat  a  pair  of  hairy  appendages,  70  mm. 
in  length  and  about  10  mm.  in  diameter,  which  in  external 
appearance  resemble  those  above  described  on  the  jaws  of 
pigs.  The  presence  of  interdigital  pits  or  glands  on  all 
four  feet  has  been  thought  to  characterize  the  genus  Ovis, 
and  their  absence  to  be  characteristic  of  the  genus  Capra;  but 
Mr.  Hodgson  has  found  that  they  exist  in  the  front  feet  of 
the  majority  of  Himalayan  goats.""  Mr.  Hodgson  measured 
the  intestines  in  two  goats  of  the  Dugu  race,  and  he  found 
that  the  proportional  length  of  the  great  and  small  intes- 
tines differed  considerably.  In  one  of  these  goats  the  cascum 
was  thirteen  inches,  and  in  the  other  no  less  than  thirty-six 
inches  in  length! 


Mr.  Clark  also  refers  to  differ- 
ences in  the  shape  of  the  mam- 
mse.  Godrou  states  that  in  the 
Nubian  race  the  scrotum  is  di- 
vided into  two  lobes;  and  Mr. 
Clark  gives  a  ludicrous  proof  of 
this  fact,  for  he  saw  in  the  Mau- 
ritius a  male  goat  of  the  Muscat 
breed  purchased  at  a  high  price 
for  a  female  in  full  milk.  These 
differences  in  the  scrotum  are 
probably  not  due  to  descent  from 


distinct  species:  for  Mr.  Clark 
states  that  this  part  varies  much 
in  form. 

"'-  Mr.  Clark,  '  Annal^  and 
Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  ii.  (2nd 
series),  1848,  p.  3G1. 

103  Desmarest,  '  Encyclop.  Me- 
thod.  Mammalogie,'  p.  480. 

10*  '  Journal  of  Asiatic  Soc.  of 
Bengal,'  vol.  xvi.,  1847,  pp.  1020, 
1025. 


104  RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 


CHAPTEE   IV. 

DOMESTIC    BABBITS. 

Domestic  rabbits  descended  from  the  common  wild  rabbit — Ancient  domes- 
tication— Ancient  selection — Large  lop-eared  rabbits — Various  breeds 
— Fluctuating  characters — Origin  of  the  Himalayan  breed — Curious 
case  of  inheritance — Feral  rabbits  in  Jamaica  and  the  Falkland  Is- 
lands— Porto  Santo  feral  rabbits — Osteological  characters — Skull — 
Skull  of  half-lop  rabbits — Variations  in  the  skull  analogous  to  differ- 
ences in  different  species  of  hares — Vertebrae — Sternum — Scapula — 
Effects  of  use  and  disuse  on  the  proportions  of  the  limbs  and  body — 
Capacity  of  the  skull  and  reduced  size  of  the  brain — Summary  on  the 
modifications  of  domesticated  rabbits. 

All  naturalists,  with,  as  far  as  I  know,  a  single  excep- 
tion, believe  that  the  several  domestic  breeds  of  the  rabbit  are 
descended  from  the  common  wild  species ;  I  shall  therefore 
describe  them  more  carefully  than  in  the  previous  cases. 
Professor  Gervais  ^  states  "  that  the  true  wild  rabbit  is  smaller 
than  the  domestic;  its  proportions  are  not  absolutely  the 
same;  its  tail  is  smaller;  its  ears  are  shorter  and  more 
thickly  clothed  with  hair;  and  the  characters,  without 
speaking'  of  colour,  are  so  many  indications  opposed  to  the 
opinion  which  unites  these  animals  under  the  same  specific 
denomination."  Few  naturalists  will  agree  with  this  author 
that  such  slight  differences  are  suificient  to  separate  as  dis- 
tinct species  the  wild  and  domestic  rabbit.  How  extraordi- 
nary it  would  be,  if  close  confinement,  perfect  tameness,  un- 
natural food,  and  careful  breeding,  all  prolonged  during 
many  generations,  had  not  produced  at  least  some  effect! 
The  tame  rabbit  has  been  domesticated  from  an  ancient  pe- 
riod. Confucius  ranges  rabbits  among  animals  worthy  to 
be  sacrificed  to  the  gods,  and,  as  he  prescribes  their  multi- 
plication, they  were  probably  at  this  early  period  domesticated 
in  China.  They  are  mentioned  by  several  of  the  classical 
writers.  In  1631  Gervaise  Markham  writes,  "  You  shall  not, 
as  in  other  cattell,  looke  to  their  shape,  but  to  their  rich- 

1  M.  P.  Gervais,  '  Hist.  Nat.  des  Mammiferes,'  1854,  torn.  1.  p.  288. 


I 


Chap.  IV. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


105 


nesse,  onely  elect  your  buekes,  the  largest  and  goodliest  conies 
you  can  get;  and  for  the  richnesse  of  the  skin,  that  is  ac- 
counted the  richest  which  hath  the  equallest  mixture  of 
blacke  and  white  haire  together,  yet  the  blacke  rather  shadow- 
ing the  white ;  the  f urre  should  be  thicke,  deepe,  smooth  and 

shining; they  are  of  body  much  fatter  and  larger, 

and,  when  another  skin  is  worth  two  or  three  pence,  they  are 
worth  two  shillings."  From  this  full  description  we  see  that 
silver-grey  rabbits  existed  in  England  at  this  period;  and 
what  is  far  more  important,  we  see  that  the  breeding  or  selec- 
tion of  rabbits  was  then  carefully  attended  to.  Aldrovandi, 
in  1637,  describes,  on  the  authority  of  several  old  writers 
(as  Scaliger,  in  1557),  rabbits  of  various  colours,  some  "  like 
a  hare,"  and  he  adds  that  P.  Valerianus  (who  died  a  very  old 
man  in  1558)  saw  at  Verona  rabbits  four  times  bigger  than 

OUTS.^ 

From  the  fact  of  the  rabbit  having  been  domesticated 
at  an  ancient  period,  we  must  look  to  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere of  the  Old  World,  and  to  the  warmer  temperate  re- 
gions alone,  for  the  aboriginal  parent-form;  for  the  rabbit 
cannot  live  without  protection  in  countries  as  cold  as  Sweden, 
and,  though  it  has  run  wild  in  the  tropical  island  of  Jamaica, 
it  has  never  greatly  multiplied  there.  It  now  exists,  and  has 
long  existed,  in  the  warmer  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  for 
fossil  remains  have  been  found  in  several  countries.^  The 
domestic  rabbit  readily  becomes  feral  in  these  same  coun- 
tries, and  when  variously  coloured  kinds  are  turned  out  they 
generally  revert  to  the  ordinary  grey  colour.*  Wild  rabbits, 
if  taken  young,  can  be  domesticated,  though  the  process  is 
generally  very  troublesome."  The  various  domestic  races  are 
often  crossed,  and  are  believed  to  be  quite  fertile  together, 


2  U.  Aldrovandi,  '  De  Quadm- 
pedibns  di^ntatis.'  1037,  p.  388. 
For  Confucius  and  G.  Marlvbam, 
see  a  writer  who  has  studied  the 
subject,  in  '  Cottajre  Gardener,' 
Jan.  22nd,  ISBl,  p.  250. 

^  Owen,  '  British  Fossil  Mam- 
mals,' p.  212. 

•*  Rochstein.  '  Natur^esch. 

Deutschlands,'  1801,  b.  i.  s.  11.33. 
I  have  received  similar  accounts 
with  respect  to  England  and 
Scotland. 


5  '  Pig-eons  and  Rabbits,'  by  E. 
S.  Delamer,  1S.54,  p.  13.3.  Sir  .T. 
Sebright  ('  Observations  on  In- 
stinct,' 18.30,  p.  10)  speaks  most 
stronsrly  on  the  difficulty.  But 
this  difficulty  is  not  invariable, 
as  I  have  received  two  accounts 
of  perfect  success  in  taming  and 
breeding  from  the  wild  rabbit. 
See  also  Dr.  P.  Brocn,  in  '  Jour- 
nal de  la  Physiologie,'  torn.  11. 
p.  308. 


106  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

and  a  perfect  gradation  can  be  sho^vn  to  exist  from  the 
largest  domestic  kinds,  having  enormously  developed  ears,  to 
the  common  wild  kind.  The  parent-form  must  have  been  a 
burrowing  animal,  a  habit  not  common,  as  far  as  I  can  dis- 
cover, to  any  other  species  in  the  large  genus  Lepus.  Only 
one  wild  species  is  known  with  certainty  to  exist  in  Europe; 
but  the  rabbit  (if  it  be  a  true  rabbit)  from  Mount  Sinai,  and 
likewise  that  from  Algeria,  present  slight  differences;  and 
forms  have  been  considered  by  some  authors  as  specifically 
distinct."  But  such  slight  differences  would  aid  us  little  in 
explaining  the  more  considerable  differences  characteristic 
of  the  several  domestic  races.  If  the  latter  are  the  descend- 
ants of  two  or  more  closely  allied  species,  these,  with  the 
exception  of  the  common  rabbit,  have  been  exterminated  in 
a  w^ild  state;  and  this  is  very  improbable,  seeing  w^ith  what 
pertinacity  this  animal  holds  its  ground.  From  these  several 
reasons  we  may  infer  with  safety  that  all  the  domestic  breeds 
are  the  descendants  of  the  common  wild  species.  But  from 
wdiat  we  hear  of  the  marvellous  success  in  France  in  rear- 
ing hybrids  between  the  hare  and  rabbit,^  it  is  possible,  though 
not  probable,  from  the  great  difficulty  in  making  the  first 
cross,  that  some  of  the  larger  races,  which  are  coloured  like 
the  hare,  may  have  been  modified  by  crosses  with  this  ani- 
mal. Nevertheless,  the  chief  differences  in  the  skeletons  of 
the  several  domestic  breeds  cannot,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
have  been  derived  from  a  cross  with  the  hare. 

There  are  many  breeds  which  transmit  their  characters 
more  or  less  truly.  Every  one  has  seen  the  enormous  lop- 
eared  rabbits  exhibited  at  our  shows;  various  allied  sub- 
breeds  are  reared  on  the  Continent,  such  as  the  so-called 
Andalusian,  which  is  said  to  have  a  large  head  with  a  round 
forehead,  and  to  attain  a  greater  size  than  any  other  kind ; 
another  large  Paris  breed  is  named  the  Rouennais,  and  has  a 
square  head;  the  so-called  Patagonian  rabbit  has  remarkably 
short  ears  and  a  large  round  head.  Although  I  have  not  seen 
all  these  breeds,  I  feel  some  doubt  about  there  being  any 
marked   difference    in   the    shape   of    their    skulls.^     English 

^  Gerrais,      '  Hist.      Nat.      des  SequarrTs  '  Journ.  de  Phys.,'  vol. 

Ma  111  in  ifr  res,'  toiii.  i.  p.  292.  ii.  p.  HCu. 

^  See  Dr.  P.  Broca's  interesting  *  The  skulls  of  these  breeds  are 

memoir  on  this  subject  in  Brown-  briefly  described  in  the  '  Journal 


Chap.  IV.  THEIR  VARIATION.  lOT 

lop-eared  rabbits  often  weigh  8  lbs.  or  10  lbs.,  and  one  has. 
been  exhibited  weighing  18  lbs.;  whereas  a  full-sized  wild 
rabbit  weighs  only  about  3-1  lbs.  The  head  or  skull  in  alL 
the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  examined  by  me  is  much  longer 
relatively  to  its  breadth  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  Many  of 
them  have  loose  transverse  folds  of  skin  or  dewlaps  beneath 
the  throat,  which  can  be  pulled  out  so  as  to  reach  nearly  to 
the  ends  of  the  jaws.  Their  ears  are  prodigiously  developed 
and  hang  down  on  each  side  of  their  faces.  A  rabbit  was 
exhibited  in  1867  with  its  two  ears,  measured  from  the  tip 
of  one  to  the  tip  of  the  other,  22  inches  in  length,  and  each 
ear  Sf  inches  in  breadth.  In  1869  one  was  exhibited  with 
ears,  measured  in  the  same  manner,  23^  in  length  and  5^ 
in  breadth;  "thus  exceeding  any  rabbit  ever  exhibited  at  a 
prize  show."  In  a  common  wild  rabbit  I  found  that  the 
length  of  two  ears,  from  tip  to  tip,  was  71  inches,  and  the 
breadth  only  1|  inch.  The  weight  of  body  in  the  larger  rab- 
bits, and  the  development  of  their  ears,  are  the  qualities 
which  win  prizes,  and  have  been  carefully  selected. 

The  hare-coloured,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Bel- 
gian rabbit,  differs  in  nothing  except  colour  from  the  other 
large  breeds;  but  Mr.  J.  Young,  of  Southampton,  a  great 
breeder  of  this  kind,  informs  me  that  the  females,  in  all  the 
specimens  examined  by  him,  had  only  six  mammae;  and  this- 
certainly  was  the  case  with  two  females  which  came  into  my 
possession.  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  however,  assures  me  that  the* 
number  is  variable  with  other  domestic  rabbits.  The  common 
wild  rabbit  always  has  ten  mammge.  The  iVngora  rabbit  is 
remarkable  from  the  length  and  fineness  of  its  fur,  which  even 
on  the  soles  of  the  feet  is  of  considerable  length.  This  breed' 
is  the  only  one  which  differs  in  its  mental  qualities,  for  it  is 
said  to  be  much  more  sociable  than  other  rabbits,  and  the- 
male  shows  no  wish  to  destroy  its  young.**  Two  live  rabbits 
were  brought  to  me  from  Moscow,  of  about  the  size  of  the  wild 
species,  but  with  long  soft  fur,  different  from  that  of  the 
Angora.  These  Moscow  rabbits  had  pink  eyes  and  were 
snow-white,  excepting  the  ears,  two  spots  near  the  nose, 
the  upper  and  under  surface  of  the  tail,  and  the  hinder  tarsi, 

of  Horticulture  '    May   7th,   1861,  ^  '  Journnl      of      Horticulture,* 

p.  108.  1861,  p.  380. 


108  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  lY. 

which   were  blackish-brown.     In   short,   they   were   coloured 

nearly  like  the  so-called  Himalayan  rabbits,  presently  to  be 

described,  and  differed  from  them  only  in  the  character  of 

their  fur.     There  are  two  other  breeds  which  come  true  to 

colour,  but  differ  in  no  other  respect,  namely  silver-greys  and 

chinchillas.     Lastly,    the   jSTicard   or   Dutch    rabbit   may   be 

3nentioned,  which  varies  in  colour,  and  is  remarkable  from 

its  small  size,  some  specimens  weighing  only  I5  lb. ;  rabbits 

'of  this  breed  make  excellent  nurses  for  other  and  more  deli- 

•cate  kinds.^" 

Certain  characters  are  remarkably  fluctuating,  or  are  very 
ieebly  transmitted  by  domestic  rabbits:  thus,  one  breeder 
tells  me  that  with  the  smaller  kinds  he  has  hardly  ever 
raised  a  whole  litter  of  the  same  colour:  with  the  large  lop- 
eared  breeds  "  it  is  impossible,"  says  a  great  judge,"  "  to  breed 
true  to  colour,  but  by  judicious  crossing  a  great  deal  may  be 
done  toward  it.  The  fancier  should  know  how  his  does  are 
bred,  that  is,  the  colour  of  their  parents."  jSTevertheless, 
certain  colours,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  are  transmitted 
truly.  The  dewlap  is  not  strictly  inherited.  Lop-eared 
rabbits,  with  their  ears  hanging  down  flat  on  each  side  of 
the  face,  do  not  transmit  this  character  at  all  truly.  Mr. 
Delamer  remarks  that,  "  with  fancy  rabbits,  when  both  the 
parents  are  perfectly  formed,  have  model  ears,  and  are  hand- 
somely marked,  their  progeny  do  not  invariably  turn  out 
the  same."  When  one  parent,  or  even  both,  are  oarlaps,  that 
is,  have  their  ears  sticking  out  at  right  angles,  or  when  one 
parent  or  both  are  half-lops,  that  is,  have  only  one  ear  de- 
pendent, there  is  nearly  as  good  a  chance  of  the  progeny 
having  both  ears  full-lop,  as  if  both  parents  had  been  thus 
characterized.  But  I  am  informed,  if  both  parents  have 
upright  ears,  there  is  hardly  a  chance  of  a  full-lop.  In  some 
half -lops  the  ear  that  hangs  down  is  broader  and  longer 
than  the  upright  ear ;  ^'  so  that  we  have  the  unusual  case  of 
a  want  of  symmetry  on  the  two  sides.  This  difference  in 
the  position  and  size  of  the  two  ears  probably  indicates  that 

^°  '  Journal      of     Horticulture,'  *  Poultrv    Chronicle,'     vol.     ii.    p. 

May  Sth.  1861,  p.  109.  499,   and  ditto   for  1854,    p.   586. 

11  '  Journal      of     Horticulture,'  ^'-  Delamer,   '  Pigeons  and  Rab- 

1861,  p.  327.     With  respect  to  the  bits.'    p.    l.*^)6.      See   also    '  Journal 

«ars,    see    Delamer    on     '  Pigeons  of  Horticulture,'  1861,  p,  375. 
iind    Rabbits,'    1854,    p.    141;    also 


Chap.  IV. 


THE   niMALAYAX  BREED. 


109 


the  lopping  results  from  the  great  length  and  weight  of  the 
ear,  favoured  no  doubt  by  the  weakness  of  the  muscles  con- 
sequent on  disuse.  Anderson ''  mentions  a  breed  having  only 
a  single  ear;  and  Professor  Gervais  another  breed  destitute  of 
eare. 

We  come  now  to  the  Himalayan  breed,  which  is  some- 
times called  Chinese,  Polish,  or  Russian.  These  pretty  rab- 
bits are  white,  or  occasionally  yellow,  excepting  their  ears, 
nose,  feet,  and  the  upper  "side  of  the  tail,  which  are  all  brown- 
ish-black; but  as  they  have  red  eyes,  they  may  be  considered 
as  albinoes.     I  have  received  several  accounts  of  their  breed- 


Fig.  5.— Half-lop  Eabljit.     (Copied  from  E.  S.  Delamer's  work.) 

ing  perfectly  true.  From  their  symmetrical  marks,  they  were 
at  first  ranked  as  specifically  distinct,  and  Avere  provisionally 
named  L.  nigripes.^*  Some  good  observers  thought  that  they 
could  detect  a  difference  in  their  habits,  and  stoutly  main- 
tained that  they  formed  a  new  species.  The  origin  of  this 
breed  is  so  curious,  both  in  itself  and  as  throwing  some  light 
on  the  complex  laws  of  inheritance  that  it  is  worth  giving 
in  detail.  But  it  is  first  necessary  briefly  to  describe  two 
other  breeds :  silver-greys  or  silver-sprigs  generally  have  black 


"  '  An  account  of  the  different 


Kinds    of    Sheep    in    the    liussiau        23rd,  1S57,  p.  lo'J 
Dominions,'  1794,  p.  39. 


"  '  Proc.     Zoolog.     Soe.,'    June 


110  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

heads  and  legs,  and  their  fine  grey  fur  is  interspersed  with 
numerous  black  and  white  long  hairs.  They  breed  perfectly 
true,  and  have  long  been  kept  in  warrens.  When  they  escape 
and  cross  with  common  rabbits,  the  product,  as  I  hear  from 
Mr.  Wyrley  Birch,  of  Wretham  Hall,  is  not  a  mixture  of 
the  two  colours,  but  about  half  take  after  the  one  parent, 
and  the  other  half  after  the  other  parent.  Secondly,  chin- 
chillas or  tame  silver-greys  (I  will  use  the  former  name)  have 
short,  paler,  mouse  or  slate-coloured  fur,  interspersed  with 
long,  blackish,  slate-coloured,  and  white  hairs.^"  These  rab- 
bits breed  perfectly  true.  A  w^riter  stated  in  1857  "*  that  he 
had  produced  Himalayan  rabbits  in  the  following  manner. 
He  had  a  breed  of  chinchillas  which  had  been  crossed  with 
the  common  black  rabbit,  and  their  offspring  were  either 
blacks  or  chinchillas.  These  latter  were  again  crossed  with 
other  chinchillas  (which  had  also  been  crossed  with  silver- 
greys),  and  from  this  complicated  cross  Himalayan  rabbits 
were  raised.  From  these  and  other  similar  statements,  Mr. 
Bartlett "  was  led  to  make  a  careful  trial  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  and  he  found  that  by  simply  crossing  silver-greys 
with  chinchillas  he  could  always  produce  some  few  Hima- 
layans;  and  the  latter,  notwithstanding  their  sudden  origin, 
if  kept  separate,  bred  perfectly  true.  But  I  have  recently 
been  assured  the  pure  silver-greys  of  any  sub-breed  occasion- 
ally produce  Himalayans. 

The  Himalayans,  when  first  born,  are  quite  white,  and  are 
then  true  albinoes;  but  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  they 
gradually  assume  their  dark  ears,  nose,  feet,  and  tail.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Wooler 
and  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Fox,  the  young  are  born  of  a  very  pale 
grey  colour,  and  specimens  of  such  fur  were  sent  me  by  the 
former  gentleman.  The  grey  tint,  however,  disappears  as 
the  animal  comes  to  maturity.  So  that  with  these  Hima- 
layans there  is  a  tendency,  strictly  confined  to  early  j^outh, 
to  revert  to  the  colour  of  the  adult  silver-grey  parent-stock. 
Silver-greys  and  chinchillas,  on  the  other  hand,  present  a  re- 
markable contrast  with  the  Himalayans  in  their  colour  w^hilst 

15  '  Journal     of     Horticulture,'  "  Mr.    Bartlett.   in   '  Proc.  Zoo- 

April  9th,  1861,  p.  35.  log.   Soc.,'  1861,   p.  40. 

"'Cottage  Gardener,'  1857,  141. 


a 

'if 


Chap.  IV.  THE  HIMALAYAN  BREED.  HI 

quite  young,  for  they  are  born  perfectly  black,  but  soon 
assume  their  characteristic  grey  or  silver  tints.  The  same 
thing  occurs  with  grey  horses,  which,  as  long  as  they  are 
foals,  are  generally  of  a  nearly  black  colour,  but  soon  become 
grey,  and  get  Avhiter  and  whiter  as  they  grow  older.  Hence 
the  usual  rule  is  that  Ilimalayans  are  born  white  and  after- 
wards become  in  certain  parts  of  their  bodies  dark-coloured; 
whilst  silver-greys  are  born  black  and  afterwards  become 
sprinkled  with  white.  Exceptions,  however,  and  of  a  directly 
opposite  nature,  occasionally  occur  in  both  cases.  For  young 
silver-greys  are  sometimes  born  in  warrens,  as  I  hear 
from  Mr.  W.  Birch,  of  a  cream-colour,  but  these  young 
animals  ultimately  become  black.  The  Himalayans,  on 
the  other  hand,  sometimes  produce,  as  is  stated  by  an 
experienced  amateur,^"  a  single  black  young  one  in  a  litter; 
and  this,  before  two  months  elapse,  becomes  perfectly 
white. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  curious  case :  wild  silver-greys  may 
be  considered  as  black  rabbits  which  become  grey  at  an  early 
period  of  life.  When  they  are  crossed  with  common  rabbits, 
the  offspring  are  said  not  to  have  blended  colours,  but  to  take 
after  either  parent;  and  in  this  respect  they  resemble  black 
and  albino  varieties  of  most  quadrupeds,  which  often  trans- 
mit their  colours  in  this  same  manner.  When  they  are 
crossed  with  chinchillas,  that  is,  with  a  paler  sub-variety,  the 
young  are  at  first  pure  albinoes,  but  soon  become  dark-col- 
oured in  certain  parts  of  their  bodies,  and  are  then  called 
Himalayans.  The  young  Himalayans,  however,  are  some- 
times at  first  either  pale  grey  or  completely  black,  in  either 
case  changing  after  a  time  to  white.  In  a  future  chapter  I 
shall  advance  a  large  body  of  facts  showing  that,  when  two 
varieties  are  crossed  both  of  which  differ  in  colour  from  their 
parent-stock,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  the  young  to 
revert  to  the  aboriginal  colour;  and  what  is  very  remark- 
able, this  reversion  occasionally  supervenes,  not  before  birth, 
but  during  the  grow^th  of  the  animal.  Hence,  if  it  could 
I  be  shown  that  silver-greys  and  chinchillas  were  the  offspring 
I     of  a  cross  between  a  black  and  albino  variety  with  the  col- 

!  18  '  Phenomenon   in    Himalayan  Rabbits,'  in  '  Journal  of  Horticul- 

I       ture,'  Jan.  27th,  1865,  p.  102. 


112  DOMESTIC  RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

ours  intimately  blended — a  supposition  in  itself  not  im- 
probable, and  supported  by  the  circumstance  of  silver-greys 
in  warrens  sometimes  producing  creamy-white  young,  which 
ultimately  become  black — then  all  the  above  given  paradoxi- 
cal facts  on  the  changes  of  colour  in  silver-greys  and  in 
their  descendants,  the  Himalayans,  would  come  under  the 
law  of  reversion,  supervening  at  different  periods  of  growth 
and  in  different  degrees,  either  to  the  original  black  or  to  the 
original  albino  parent-variety. 

It  is,  also,  remarkable  that  Himalayans,  though  produced 
so  suddenly,  breed  true.  But  as,  whilst  young,  they  are 
albinoes,  the  case  falls  under  a  very  general  rule;  albinism 
being  well  known  to  be  strongly  inherited,  for  instance  with 
white  mice  and  many  other  quadrupeds,  and  even  white 
flowers.  But  why,  ■  it  may  be  asked,  do  the  ears,  tail,  nose, 
and  feet,  and  no  other  part  of  the  body,  revert  to  a  black 
colour?  This  apparently  depends  on  a  law,  which  generally 
holds  good,  namely,  that  characters  common  to  many  species 
of  a  genus — and  this,  in  fact,  implies  long  inheritance  from 
the  ancient  progenitor  of  the  genus — are  found  to  resist 
variation,  or  to  reappear  if  lost,  more  persistently  than  the 
characters  which  are  confined  to  the  separate  species.  Now, 
in  the  genus  Lepus,  a  large  majority  of  the  species  have  their 
ears  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  tinted  black;  but  the 
persistence  of  these  marks  is  best  seen  in  those  species  which 
in  winter  become  white:  thus,  in  Scotland  the  L.  variahilis^^ 
in  its  winter  dress  has  a  shade  of  colour  on  its  nose,  and  the 
tips  of  its  ears  are  black:  in  the  L.  tibetanus  the  ears  are 
black,  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  greyish-black,  and  the 
soles  of  the  feet  brown :  in  L.  glacialis  the  winter  fur  is  pure 
white,  except  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  the  points  of  the  ears. 
Even  in  the  variously-coloured  fancy  rabbits  we  may  often 
observe  a  tendency  in  these  same  parts  to  be  more  darkly 
tinted  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  Thus  the  several  coloured 
marks  on  the  Himalayan  rabbits,  as  they  grow  old,  are 
rendered  intelligible.  I  may  add  a  nearly  analogous  case: 
fancy  rabbits  very  often  have  a  white  star  on  their  foreheads ; 
and    the    common    English    hare,    wdiilst    young,    generally 

1^  G.   R.   Waterhouse,   *  Natural     Historj'   of   Mammalia:    Rodents,' 
1846,  pp.  52,  60,  105. 


Chap.  IV.  FERAL   RABBITS.  113 

has,  as  I  have  myself  observed,  a  similar  white  star  on  its 
forehead. 

When  variously  coloured  rabbits  are  set  free  in  Europe, 
and  are  thus  placed  under  their  natural  conditions,  they 
generally  revert  to  the  aboriginal  grey  colour ;  this  may  be  in 
part  due  to  the  tendency  in  all  crossed  animals,  as  lately 
observed,  to  revert  to  their  primordial  state.  But  this  ten- 
dency does  not  always  prevail;  thus  silver-grey  rabbits  are 
kept  in  warrens,  and  remain  true  though  living  almost  in  a 
state  of  nature;  but  a  warren  must  not  be  stocked  with  both 
silver  greys  and  common  rabbits ;  otherwise  "  in  a  few  years 
there  will  be  none  but  common  greys  surviving." ""  When 
rabbits  run  wild  in  foreign  countries  under  new  conditions  of 
life,  they  by  no  means  always  revert  to  their  aboriginal  colour. 
In  Jamaica  the  feral  rabbits  are  described  as  having  been 
"  slate-coloured,  deeply  tinted  with  sprinklings  of  white  on 
the  neck,  on  the  shoulders,  and  on  the  back;  softening  off 
to  blue-white  under  the  breast  and  belly."  "'^  But  in  this 
tropical  island  the  conditions  were  not  favourable  to  their 
increase,  and  they  never  spread  wddely,  and  are  now  extinct, 
as  I  hear  from  Mr.  R.  Hill,  owing  to  a  great  fire  which 
occurred  in  the  woods.  Babbits  during  many  years  have  run 
wild  in  the  Falkland  Islands;  they  are  abundant  in  certain 
parts,  but  do  not  spread  extensively.  Most  of  them  are  of 
the  common  grey  colour ;  a  iew,  as  I  am  informed  by  Admiral 
Sulivan,  are  hare-coloured,  and  many  are  black,  often  with 
nearly  symmetrical  white  marks  on  their  faces.  Hence,  M. 
Lesson  described  the  black  variety  as  a  distinct  species,  under 
the  name  of  Lepus  magellanicus,  but  this,  as  I  have  else- 
where shown,  is  an  error."  Within  recent  times  the  seal- 
ers have  stocked  some  of  the  small  outlying  islets  in  the 
Falkland  group  with  rabbits;  and  on  Pebble  Islet,  as  I 
hear  from  Admiral  Sulivan,  a  large  proportion  are  hare- 
coloured,  whereas  on  Rabbit  Islet  a  large  proportion  are  of 

20  Delamer    on     '  Pigeons    and  Loands  {see  Livingstone's  '  Trav- 

Rabbits,'  p.  114.  els,'    p.   407).      In   parts  of   India, 

-1  Gosse's  '  Sojourn  in  Jamai-  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Blyth. 
ca,'  1851.  p.  441.  as  described  bv  they  breed  well, 
an  excellent  observer.  Mr.  R.  -  p.^rwin's  '  Journn!  of  Re- 
Hill.  This  is  the  onlv  known  searches.'  p.  103;  and  '  Zoology  of 
case  in  which  rabbits  "have  be-  the  Voyage  of  the  Beagle:  Mam- 
come  feral  in  a  hot  country.  malia,'  p.  U2. 
They   can   be   kept,    however,    at 


114  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  IV, 

a  bluish  colour,  which  is  not  elsewhere  seen.  How  the  rab- 
bits were  coloured  which  were  turned  out  of  these  islets  is 
not  known. 

The  rabbits  which  have  become  feral  on  the  island  of 
Porto  Santo,  near  Madeira,  deserve  a  fuller  account.  In 
1418  or  1419,  J.  Gonzales  Zarco  '^  happened  to  have  a  female 
rabbit  on  board  which  had  produced  young  during  the  voyage, 
and  he  turned  them  all  out  on  the  island.  These  animals 
soon  increased  so  rapidly,  that  they  became  a  nuisance,  and 
actually  caused  the  abandonment  of  the  settlement.  Thirty- 
seven  years  subsequently,  Cada  Mosto  describes  them  as  in- 
numerable; nor  is  this  surprising,  as  the  island  was  not  in- 
Jiabited  by  any  beast  of  prey  or  by  any  terrestrial  mammal. 
We  do  not  know  the  character  of  the  mother-rabbit ;  but  it 
was  probably  the  common  domesticated  kind.  The  Spanish 
peninsula,  whence  Zarco  sailed,  is  known  to  have  abounded 
wdth  the  common  wild  species  at  the  most  remote  historical 
period;  and  as  these  rabbits  were  taken  on  board  for  food,  it 
is  improbable  that  they  should  have  been  of  any  peculiar 
breed.  That  the  breed  was  well  domesticated  is  shown  by 
the  doe  having  littered  during  the  voyage.  Mr.  Wollaston, 
at  my  request,  brought  home  two  of  these  feral  rabbits  in 
.spirits  of  wine;  and,  subsequently,  Mr.  W.  Haywood  sent  to 
me  three  more  specimens  in  brine,  and  two  alive.  These 
.seven  specimens,  though  caught  at  different  periods,  closely 
Tesembled  each  other.  Thej^  were  full  grown,  as  shown  by 
the  state  of  their  bones.  Although  the  conditions  of  life  in  j 
Porto  Santo  are  evidently  highly  favourable  to  rabbits,  as 
proved  by  their  extraordinarily  rapid  increase,  yet  they  differ 
•conspicuously  in  their  small  size  from  the  wild  English 
rabbit.  Four  English  rabbits,  measured  from  the  incisors  to 
the  anus,  varied  between  17  and  17|  inches  in  length;  whilst 
two  of  the  Porto  Santo  rabbits  were  only  14^-  and  15  inches 
in  length.  But  the  decrease  in  size  is  best  shown  by  weight; 
four  wild  English  rabbits  averaged  31b.  5  oz.,  whilst  one  of 
the  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  which  had  lived  for  four  years  in 

23  Kerr's    '  Collection    of    Voy-  ten  by  a  Jesuit,  the  rabbits  were 

ages,'    vol.    ii.    p.    177:   p.   205   for  turned  out  in  1420.     Some  authors 

Cada  Mosto.     According  to  a  work  believe   that   the   island   was   dis- 

published   in   Lisbon  in   1717.    en-  covered  in  1413. 
titled    '  Historia    Insulana,'    writ- 


Chap.  IV.  FERAL   RABBITS.  II5 

the  Zoological  Gardens,  but  had  become  thin,  weighed  only 
1  lb.  9  oz.  A  fairer  test  is  afforded  by  the  comparison  of 
the  well-cleaned  limb-bones  of  a  Porto  Santo  rabbit  killed  on 
the  island  with  the  same  bones  of  a  wild  English  rabbit  of 
average  size,  and  they  differed  in  the  proportion  of  rather  less 
than  live  to  nine.  So  that  the  Porto  Santo  rabbits  have  de- 
creased nearly  three  inches  in  length,  and  almost  half  in 
weight  of  body."*  The  head  has  not  decreased  in  length  pro- 
portionally with  the  body;  and  the  capacity  of  the  brain 
case  is,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  singularly  variable.  I  pre- 
pared four  skulls,  and  these  resembled  each  other  more 
closely  than  do  generally  the  skulls  of  wild  English  rabbits; 
but  the  only  difference  in  structure  which  they  presented  was 
that  the  supra-orbital  processes  of  the  frontal  bones  were 
narrower. 

In  colour  the  Porto  Santo  rabbit  differs  considerably 
from  the  common  rabbit;  the  upper  surface  is  redder,  and  is 
rarely  interspersed  with  any  black  or  black-tipped  hairs.  The 
throat  and  certain  parts  of  the  under  surface,  instead  of 
being  pure  white,  are  generally  pale  grey  or  leaden  colour. 
But  the  most  remarkable  difference  is  in  the  ears  and  tail; 
I  have  examined  many  fresh  English  rabbits,  and  the  large 
collection  of  skins  in  the  British  Museum  from  various  coun- 
tries, and  all  have  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  and  the  tips 
of  the  ears  clothed  with  blackish-grey  fur;  and  this  is  given 
in  most  works  as  one  of  the  specific  characters  of  the  rabbit. 
Now  in  the  seven  Porto  Santo  rabbits  the  upper  surface  of 
the  tail  was  reddish-brown,  and  the  tips  of  the  ears  had  no 
trace  of  the  black  edging.  But  here  we  meet  with  a  singular 
circumstance :  in  June,  1861,  I  examined  two  of  these  rabbits 
recently  sent  to  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  their  tails  and 
ears  were  coloured  as  just  described;  but  when  one  of  their 
dead  bodies  was  sent  to  me  in  February,  1865,  the  ears  were 
plainly  edged,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  was  covered 
with  blackish-grey  fur,  and  the  whole  body  was  much  less 
red;  so  that  under  the  English  climate  this  individual  rabbit 

-*  Somethin.s;  of  the  same  kind  turned    out    some    rabbits    which 

has  occurred  on  the  island  of  Li-  multiplied  prodigiously,  but,  says 

para,    where,    according    to    Spal-  Spallanzani,    "  les    lapins   de   I'ile 

lanzani    ('  Voyage    dans    les   deux  de    Lipari    sont    plus    petits    que 

Siciles,'  quoted  by  Godron.  '  De  eeux  qu'on  eleve  en  domesticite." 
I'Espece,'   p.   364),   a   countryman 

9 


116  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

had  recovered  the  proper  colour  of  its  fur  in  rather  less  than 
four  years ! 

The  two  little  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  whilst  alive  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  had  a  remarkably  different  appearance 
from  the  common  kind.  They  were  extraordinarily  wild  and 
active,  so  that  many  person  exclaimed  on  seeing  them  that 
they  were  more  like  large  rats  than  rabbits.  They  w^ere 
nocturnal  to  an  unusual  degree  in  their  habits,  and  their 
wildness  was  never  in  the  least  subdued;  so  that  the  super- 
intendent, Mr.  Bartlett,  assured  me  that  he  had  never  had  a 
wilder  animal  under  his  charge.  This  is  a  singular  fact,  con- 
sidering that  they  are  descended  from  a  domesticated  breed. 
I  was  so  much  surprised  at  it,  that  I  requested  Mr.  Haj^wood 
to  make  inquiries  on  the  spot,  whether  they  were  much 
hunted  by  the  inhabitants,  or  persecuted  by  hawks,  or.  cats, 
or  other  animals;  but  this  is  not  the  case,  and  no  cause  can 
be  assigned  for  their  wildness.  They  live  both  on  the  cen- 
tral, higher  rocky  land  and  near  the  sea-cliffs,  and,  from 
being  exceedingly  shy  and  timid,  seldom  appear  in  the  lower 
and  cultivated  districts.  They  are  said  to  produce  from  four 
to  six  young  at  a  birth,  and  their  breeding  season  is  in  J.uly 
and  August.  Lastly,  and  this  is  a  highly  remarkable  fact, 
Mr.  Bartlett  could  never  succeed  in  getting  these  two  rab- 
bits, which  were  both  males,  to  associate  or  breed  with  the 
females  of  several  breeds  which  were  repeatedly  placed  with 
them. 

If  the  history  of  these  Porto  Santo  rabbits  had  not  been 
known,  most  naturalists,  on  observing  their  much  reduced 
size,  their  colour,  reddish  above  and  grey  beneath,  their  tails 
and  ears  not  tipped  with  black,  would  have  ranked  them  as  a 
distinct  species.  They  would  have  been  strongly  confirmed 
in  this  view  by  seeing  them  alive  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
and  hearing  that  they  refused  to  couple  with  other  rabbits. 
Yet  this  rabbit,  which  there  can  be  little  doubt  would  thus 
have  been  ranked  as  a  distinct  species,  as  certainly  originated 
since  the  year  1420.  Finally,  from  the  three  cases  of  the 
rabbits  which  have  run  wild  in  Porto  Santo,  Jamaica,  and  the 
Falkland  Islands,  we  see  that  these  animals  do  not,  under  new 
conditions  of  life,  revert  to  or  retain  their  aboriginal  charac- 
ter, as  is  so  generally  asserted  to  be  the  case  by  most  authors. 


Chap.  IV.  FERAL   RABBITS.  117 

Osteological  Characters. 

When  we  remember,  on  the  one  hand,  how  frequently  it  is 
stated  that  important  parts  of  the  structure  never  vary ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  on  what  small  differences  in  the  skeleton 
fossil  species  have  often  been  founded,  the  variability  of  the 
skull  and  of  some  other  bones  in  the  domesticated  rabbit 
well  deserves  attention.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the 
more  important  differences  immediately  to  be  described 
strictly  characterize  any  one  breed;  all  that  can  be  said  is, 
that  they  are  generally  present  in  certain  breeds.  We  should 
bear  in  mind  that  selection  has  not  been  api)lied  to  fix  any 
character  in  the  skeleton,  and  that  the  animals  have  not  had 
to  support  themselves  under  uniform  habits  of  life.  We 
cannot  account  for  most  of  the  differences  in  the  skeleton; 
but  we  shall  see  that  the  increased  size  of  the  body,  due  to 
careful  nurture  and  continued  selection,  has  affected  the 
head  in  a  particular  manner.  Even  the  elongation  and 
lopping  of  the  ears  have  influenced  in  a  small  degree  the 
form  of  the  whole  skull.  The  want  of  exercise  has  apparently 
modified  the  proportional  length  of  the  limbs  in  comparison 
with  that  of  the  body. 

As  a  standard  of  comparison,  I  prepared  skeletons  of  two  wild 
rabbits  from  Kent,  one  from  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  one  from 
Antrim  in  Ireland.  As  all  the  bones  in  these  four  specimens  from 
such  distant  localities  closely  resembled  each  other,  presenting 
scarcely  any  appreciable  difference,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the 
bones  of  the  wild  rabbit  are  generally  uniform  in  character. 

Skull. — I  have  carefully  examined  skulls  of  ten  large  lop-eared 
rabbits,  and  of  five  common  domestic  rabbits,  which  latter  differ 
from  the  lop-eared  only  in  not  having  such  large  bodies  or  ears, 
yet  both  larger  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  First  for  the  ten  lop- 
eared  rabbits:  in  all  these  the  skull  is  remarkably  elongated  in 
comparison  with  its  breadth.  In  a  wild  rabbit  the  length  was 
3.15  inches,  in  a  large  fancy  rabbit  4.3;  whilst  the  breadth  of  the 
cranium  enclosing  the  brain  was  in  both  almost  exactly  the  same. 
Even  by  taking  as  the  standard  of  comparison  the  widest  ])art  of 
the  zygomatic  arch,  the  skulls  of  the  lop-eared  are  proi)ortionally 
to  their  breadth  three-quarters  of  an  inch  too  long.  The  depth  of 
the  head  has  increased  almost  in  the  same  proportion  with  the 
length;  it  is  the  breadth  alone  which  has  not  increased.  The 
parietal  and  occipital  bones  enclosing  the  brain  are  less  arched, 
both  in  a  longitudinal  and  transverse  line,  than  in  the  wild  rabbit, 
so  that  the  shape  of  the  cranium  is  somewhat  different.     The  sur-. 


118 


DOMESTIC   RABBITS. 


Chap.  IV. 


face  is  rougher,  less  cleanly  sculptured,  and  the  lines  of  sutures 
are  more  prominent. 

Although  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  in  compari- 
son "vvith  those  of  the  wild  rabbit  are  much  elongated  relatively  to 


Pig.  6.— Skull  of  Wild  Eabbit,  of 
natural  size. 


Fig.  7. — Skull  of  large  Lop-eared   .,  i 
Eabbit,  of  natural  size.  [ 

their  breadth,  yet,  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  body,  they  are  far  , 
from   elongated.     The   lop-eared   rabbits   -which    I   examined   were,  > 
though  not  fat,  more  than  twice  as  heavy  as  the  wild  specimens; 
but  the  skull  was  very  far  from  being  twice  as  long.     Even  if  we 
take  the  fairer  standard  of  the  length  of  body,  from  the  nose  to 


Chap.  IV.    DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


119 


average 


as 


long 


as  it 


ouglit 


to 


the  anus,  the  skull  is  not  on  an 

be  by  a  third  of  an  inch.  In  the  small  feral  Porto  Santo  rabbit, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  head  relatively  to  the  lengtlx  of  body  is 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  too  long. 

This  elongation  of  the  skull  relatively  to  its  breadth.  I  find  a 
universal  character,  not  only  with  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  but 
in  all  the  artificial  breeds;  as  is  well  seen  in  tiie  skull  of  the  An- 
gora. I  was  at  first  much  surprised  at  the  fact,  and  could  not 
imagine  why  domestication  could  produce  this  uniform  result; 
but  the  explanation  seems  to  lie  in  the  circumstance  that  during 
a  number  of  generations  the  artificial  races  have  been  closely  con- 
fined, and  have  had  little  occasion  to  exert  either  their  senses,  or 
intellect,  or  voluntary  muscles;  consequently  the  brain,  as  we 
shall  presently  more  fully  see,  has  not  increased  relatively  with  the 
size  of  the  body.  As  the  brain  has  not  increased,  the  bony  case  en- 
closing it  has  not  increased,  and  this  has  evidently  affected  through 
correlation  the  breadth  of  the  entire  skull  from  end  to  end. 

In  all  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  the  supra-orbital 
plates  or  processes  of  the  fiontal  bones  are  much  broader  than  in 
the  wild  rabbit,  and  they  generally  project  more  upwards.     In  the 
zygomatic  arch  the  posterior  or  projecting  point  of  the  malar-bone 
is  broader  and  blunter;  and  in  the  specimen,  Fig.  8,  it  is  so  in  a 
remarkable    degree.      This    point 
approaches   nearer   to   the   audi- 
tory  meatus    than   in    the    wild 
rabbit,  as  may  be  best  seen  m 
Fig.    8;    but    this    circumstance 
mainly  depends  on  the  changed 
direction  of  the  meatus.    The  in- 
ter-parietal bone  (see  Fig.  9)  dif- 
fers much  in  shape  in  the  several 
skulls;  generally  it  is  more  oval, 
that  is  more  extended  in  the  line 
of  the  longitudinal   axis  of  the 
skull,  than   in   the  wild   rabbit. 
The    posterior    margin    of    "  the 
square     raised     platform "  -^     of 
the    occiput,    instead    of    being 
truncated,  or  projecting  slightly 
as  in  the  wild  rabbit,  is  in  most 
lop-eared  rabbits   pointed,   as  in 
Fig.  9,  C.    The  paramastoids  rela- 
tively to  the  size  of  the  skull  are 
generally  much  thicker  than  in 
the  wild  rabbit. 

The    occipital    foramen    (Fig. 


Fig.  8.— Part  of  Zyjromatic  Arch, 
showing  the  projecting  end  of  the 
malar  bono  of  the  auditory  meatus  r 
of  natural  size.  Upper  li gu ro.  Wild 
Eabbit.  Lower  figure,  Lop-cared, 
hare-coloured  Eabbit. 

in  the  wild  rabbit,  tlie 


10)   presents%ome  remarkable  differences:   in  the 

lower  edge  between  the  condyles  is  considerably  and  almost  an 

25  Waterhouse,    '  Nat.   Hist.  Mammalia,'  vol.  ii.  p.  36. 


120 


DOMESTIC   RABBITS. 


Chap.  IV. 


B 


gularly  hollowed  out,  and  the  upper  edge  is  deeply  and  squarely 
notched;  hence  the  longitudinal  axis  exceeds  the  transverse  axis. 
In  the  skulls  of  the  lop-eared  rabbits  the  transverse  axis  exceeds 
the  longitudinal:  for  in  none  of  these  skulls  was  the  lower  edge 
between  the  condyles  so  deeply  hollowed  out;  in  live  of  them 
there  was  no  upper  square  notch,  in  three  there  was  a  trace  of  the 

notch,  and  in  two  alone  it 
C  was  well  developed.    These 

differences  in  the  shape  of 
the    foramen    are    remark- 
able,   considering    that    it 
gives    passage    to    so    im- 
portant a  structure  as  the 
spinal  marrow,  though  ap- 
parently the  outline  of  the 
latter    is    not    affected    by 
the  shape  of  the  passage, 
the    skulls    of 
lop-eared     rab- 
bony     auditory 


C,y^Tpit£  J 


Fig.  9. — Posterior  end  of  skull,  of  natural 
size,  showing  the  inter-parietal  bone.  A. 
Wild  Rabbit.  B.  Feral  Rabbit  from 
island  of  P.  Santo,  near  Madeira.  C. 
Large  Lop-eared  Rabbit. 


In    all 

the    large 
bits,     the 


B 


Fig.  10. — Occipital  Foramen,  of  natural 
size,  in — A.  Wild  Rabbit.  B.  Lop- 
erred  Rabbit. 


meatus  is  conspicuously  larger  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  In  a  skull 
4.3  inches  in  length,  and  which  barely  exceeded  in  breadth  the 
skull  of  a  wild  rabbit  (which  was  3.15  inches  in  length),  the  longer 
diameter  of  the  meatus  was  exactly  twice  as  great.  The  orifice 
is  more  compressed,  and  its 
margin  on  the  side  nearest 
the  skull  stands  up  higher 
than  the  outer  side.  The 
whole  meatus  is  directed 
more  forwards.  As  in  breed- 
ing lop-eared  rabbits  the 
length  of  the  ears,  and  their 
consequent  lopping  and  ly- 
ing flat  on  the  face,  are  the 
chief  points  of  excellence, 
there  can  hardlv  be  a  doubt  that  the 

form,  and  direction  of  the  bony  meatus,  relatively  to  this  same 
part  in  the  wild  rabbit,  is  due  to  the  continued  selection  of 
individuals  having  larger  and  larger  ears.  The  influence  of  the 
external  ear  on  the  bonv  meatus  is  well  shown  in  the  skulls 
(I  have  examined  three)  of  half-lops  (see  Fig.  5),  in  which 
the  one  ear  stands  upright,  and  the  other  and  longer  ear 
liangs  down;  for  in  these  skulls  there  was  a  plain  difference  in 
the  form  and  direction  of  the  bony  meatus  on  the  two  sides.  But 
it  is  a  much  more  interesting  fact,  that  the  changed  direction  and 
increased  size  of  the  bony  meatus  have  slightly  aflected  on  the 
same  side  the  structure  of  the  whole  skull.  I  here  give  a  drawing 
(Fig.  11)  of  the  skull  of  a  half-lop;  and  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  suture  between  the  parietal  and  frontal  bones  does  not  run 
strictly  at  right  angles  to  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  skull;  the 


great 


change  in  the  size, 


Chap.  IV.      DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


121 


left  frontal  bone  projects  beyond  the  right  one;  both  the  pos- 
terior and  anterior  margins  of  the  left  zygomatic  arch  on  the 
side  of  the  lopping  ear  stand  a  little  in  advance  of  the  corre- 
sponding bones  on  the  opposite  side.  Even  the  lower  jaw  is  af- 
fected, and  the  condyles  are 
not  quite  symmetrical,  that 
on  the  left  standing  a  little 
in  advance  of  that  on  the 
rioht.  This  seems  to  me  a  re- 
markable  case  of  correlation 
of  growth.  Who  would  have 
surmised  that  by  keeping  an 
animal  during  many  gener- 
ations under  confinement, 
and  so  leading  to  the  dis- 
use of  the  muscles  of  tlie 
ears,  and  by  continually  se- 
lecting individuals  with  the 
longest  and  largest  ears, 
he  would  thus  indirectly 
have  affected  almost  every 
suture  in  the  skull  and 
the  form  of  the  lower 
jaw! 

In  the  large  lop-eared 
rabbits  the  only  difference  in 
the  lower  jaw,  in  comparison 
with  that  of  the  wild  rabbit, 
is  that  the  posterior  margin 
of  the  ascending  ramus  is 
broader  and  more  inflected. 
The  teeth  in  neither  jaw  pre- 
sent any  difference,  except 
that  the  small  incisors,  be- 
neath the  large  ones,  are  pro- 
portionately a  little  longer. 
The  molar  teeth  have  in- 
creased in  size  proportion- 
ately with  the  increased 
width  of  the  skull,  measured 
across  the  zygomatic  arch, 
and  not  proportionally  with 
its  increased  length.  The 
inner  line  of  the  sockets  of 
the  molar  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw  of  the  wild  rabbit  forms 


FiG.ll.— Skull  of  natural  size,  of  Half-lop 
Eabbit,  showing  the  different  dirt-ction 
of  the  auditory  meatus  on  the  two 
sides,  and  the  consequent  general  dis- 
tortion of  the  skull.  The  left  ear  of 
the  animal  (or  right  side  of  figure) 
lopped  forwards. 
a  perfectly  straight  line;  but 

in  some  of  the  largest  skulls  of  the  lop-eared  this  line  was  plamly 
bowed  inwards.  In  one  specimen  there  was  an  additional  molar 
tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  between  the  molars  and  pre- 


122  DOMESTIC  EABBITS. 

molars;  but  these  two  teeth  did  not  correspond  in  size;  and  as  no 
rodent  has  seven  molars,  this  is  merely  a  monstrosity,  though  a 
curious  one. 

The  five  other  skulls  of  common  domestic  rabbits,  some  of  which 
approach  in  size  the  above-described  largest  skulls,  whilst  the 
others  exceed  but  little  those  of  the  wild  rabbit,  are  only  worth 
notice  as  presenting  a  perfect  gradation  in  all  the  above-specified 
differences  between  the  skulls  of  the  largest  lop-eared  and  wild 
rabbits.  In  all,  however,  the  supra-orbital  plates  are  rather  larger, 
and  in  all  the  auditory  meatus  is  larger,  in  conformity  with  the 
increased  size  of  the  external  ears,  than  in  the  wild  rabbit.  The 
lower  notch  in  the  occipital  foramen  in  some  was  not  so  deep  as  in 
the  wild  rabbit,  but  in  all  five  skulls  the  upper  notch  was  well 
developed. 

The  skull  of  the  Angora  rabbit,  like  the  latter  five  skulls,  is  in- 
termediate in  general  proportions,  and  in  most  other  characters, 
between  those  of  the  largest  lop-eared  and  wild  rabbits.  It  pre- 
sents only  one  singular  character:  though  considerably  longer 
than  the  skull  of  the  wild  rabbit,  the  breadth  measured  within  the 
posterior  supra-orbital  fissures  is  nearly  a  third  less  than  in  the 
wild.  The  skulls  of  the  sUvcr-yrcy,  and  chinchilla  and  Himalayan 
rabbits  are  more  elongated  than  in  the  wild,  with  broader  supra- 
orbital plates,  but  difier  little  in  any  other  respect,  excepting  that 
the  upper  and  lower  notches  of  the  occipital  foramen  are  not  so 
deep  or  so  well  developed.  The  skull  of  the  Moscow  rabbit  scarcely 
differs  at  all  from  that  of  the  wild  rabbit.  In  the  Porto  Santo 
feral  rabbits  the  supra-orbital  plates  are  generally  narrower  and 
more  pointed  than  in  our  wild  rabbits. 

As  some  of  the  largest  lop-eared  rabbits  of  which  I  prepared 
skeletons  were  coloured  almost  like  hares,  and  as  these  latter  ani- 
mals and  rabbits  have,  as  it  is  affirmed,  been  recently  crossed  in 
France,  it  might  be  thought  that  some  of  the  above-described 
characters  had  been  derived  from  a  cross  at  a  remote  period  with 
the  hare.  Consequently  I  examined  skulls  of  the  hare,  but  no  light 
could  thus  be  thrown  on  the  peculiarities  of  the  skulls  of  the  large 
rabbits.  It  is,  however,  an  interesting  fact,  as  illustrating  the  law 
that  varieties  of  one  species  often  assume  the  characters  of  other 
species  of  the  same  genus,  that  I  found,  on  comparing  the  skulls 
of  ten  species  of  hares  in  the  British  Museum,  that  they  diifered 
from  each  other  chiefly  in  the  very  same  points  in  which  domestic 
rabbits  vary, — namely,  in  general  proportions,  in  the  form  and 
size  of  the  supra-orbital  plates,  in  the  form  of  the  free  end  of  the 
malar  bone,  and  in  the  line  of  suture  separating  the  occipital 
and  frontal  bones.  Moreover  two  eminently  variable  characters 
in  the  domestic  rabbit,  namely,  the  outline  of  the  occipital  fora- 
men and  the  shape  of  the  "  raised  platform "  of  the  occiput,  j 
were  likewise  variable  in  two  instances  in  the  same  species  of  | 
hare. 

Tertehrw. — The  number  is  uniform  in  all  the  skeletons  which  I 
have  examined,  with  two  exceptions,  namely,  in  one  of  the  small 


Chap.  IV.    DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


123 


feral  Porto  Santo  rabbits  and  in  one  of  the  largest  lop-eared  kinds; 
both  of  these  had  as  usual  seven  cervical,  twelve  dorsal  witli  ribs, 
but,  instead  of  seven  lumbar,  both  had  eight  lumbar  vertebrae. 
This  is  remarkable,  as  Gervais  gives  seven  as  the  number  for  the 
whole  genus  Lepus.  The  caudal  vertebrae  apparently  dilfer  by 
two  or  three,  but  I  did  not  attend  to  them,  and  they  are  dillieult  to 
count  with  certainty. 

In  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  or  atlas,  the  anterior  margin  of 
the  neural  arch  varies  a  little  in  wild  specimens,  being  either  near- 
ly smooth,  or  furnished  with  a  small  supra-median  atlantoid  pro- 
cess; I  have  figured  a  specimen  with  ^ 
the  largest  process  (Fig.  12,  a)  which 
I  have  seen ;     but  it  will  be  observed 
how  inferior  this  is  in  size  and  differ- 
ent in  shape  to  that  in  a  large  lop- 
eared  rabbit.   In    the    latter,  the  in- 
fra-median process  (0)  is  also  propor- 
tionally  much    thicker    and    longer. 
The    alse    are    a    little    squarer    in 
outline. 

rcrtehra. — In  the 
13,  A  a)  this  ver- 
the  inferior  sur- 
face, has  a  transverse  process,  which 
is  directed  obliquely  backwards,  and 
consists  of  a  single  pointed  bar;  in 
the  fourth  vertebra  this  process  is 
slightlv  forked  in  the  middle.  In 
the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  this  pro- 
cess (b  ff)  is  forked  in  the  third 
vertebra,  as  in  the  fourth  of  the 
wild  rabbit.  But  the  third  cervical 
vertebrae  of  the  wild  and  lop-eared 
(a  6,  B  h)  rabbits  differ  more  con- 
spicuously when  their  anterior  articular  surfaces  are  compared  for 
the  extremities  of  the  antero-dorsal  processes  in  the  wild  rabbit, 
are  simply  rounded,  whilst  in  the  lop-eared  they  are  trifid.  with  a. 
deep  central  pit.  The  canal  for  the  spinal  marrow  in  tlie  lop-eared 
(b  h)  is  more  elongated  in  a  transverse  direction  than  in  the  wild 
rabbit;  and  the  passages  for  the  arteries  are  of  a  slightly  different 
shape.     These  several  differences  in  this  vertebra  seem  to  me  well 


Third  cervical 
wild  rabbit   (Fig. 
tebra,   viewed   on 


Fig.  12.— Atlas  Vertebrae,  of 
natural  size  ;  inferior  surface 
viewed  obliquely.  Upper  figure, 
Wild  Eabbit.  Lower  figure, 
Hare-coloured,  large,  Lop- 
eared  Rabbit,  a,  supra-mediaa 
atlantoid  process ;  h,  infra- 
median  process. 


deserving  attention. 


First  dorsal  vertebra. — Its  neural  spine  varies  in  length  in  the 
wild  rabbit;  being  sometimes  very  short,  but  generally  more  than 
half  as  long  as  that  of  the  second  dorsal;  but  I  have  seen  it  in 
two  large  lop-eared  rabbits  three-fourths  of  the  length  of  that  of 
the  second  dorsal  vertebra. 

Ninth  and  tenlh  dorsal  vertehrcc.— In  the  wild  rabbit  the  neural 
spine  of  the  ninth  vertebra  is  just  peirceptibly  thicker  than  that  of 


124 


DOMESTIC   RABBITS. 


Chap.  IV. 


B 


the  eighth;   and  the  neural  spine  of  the  tenth  is  plainly  thicker 
and    shorter    than    those    of    all    the    anterior    vertebrae.      In    the 

large  lop-eared  rabbits  the 
neural  spines  of  the  tenth, 
ninth,  and  eighth  verte- 
brae, and  even  in  a  slight 
degree  that  of  the  seventh, 
are  very  much  thicker, 
and  of  somewhat  diU'erent 
shape,  in  comparison  with 
those  of  the  wild  rabbit. 
So  that  this  part  of  the 
vertebral  column  differs 
considerably  in  appear- 
ance from  the  same  part 
in  the  wild  rabbit,  and 
closely  resembles  in  an  in- 
teresting manner  these 
same  vertebra?  in  some 
species  of  hares.  In  the 
Angora,  Chinchilla, 
Himalayan  rabbits, 
neural       spines      of 


a 


Fig.  13. — Third  Cervical  Yertebra}.  of 
natural  size,  of — A.  Wild  Rabbit;  B.  Hare- 
coloured,  large.  Lop-eared  Rabbit,  a,  a, 
inferior  surface ;  h,  b,  anterior  articular 
surfaces. 


eighth 
in 


the 


and   ninth  vertebrae   are  in  a 
wild.      On    the    other    hand,    in 


slight 


degree 


thicker 


and 

the 

the 

than 


one    of    the    feral    Porto 


Santo    rabbits,    which    in    most    of    its    characters    deviates    from 


B 


Fig.  14. — Dorsal  Vertebrfe.  from  sixth  to  tenth  inclusive,  of  natural  size, 
viewed  laterally.  A.  Wild  Rabbit.  B.  Large  Hare-coloured,  so- 
called  Spanish  Rabbit. 

the    common    wild    rabbit,    in    a    direction    exactly    opposite    to 
that   assumed   by  the  large   lop-eared   rabbits,   the   neural   spines 


Chap.  IV.    DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


125 


larger 


of  the  ninth  and  tenth  vertebrae  were  not  at  all 
those  of  the  several  anterior  vertebree.  . 
In  this  same  Porto  Santo  specimen 
there  ^vas  no  trace  in  the  ninth  vertebra 
of  the  anterior  lateral  processes  (see 
woodcut  14),  which  are  plainly  developed 
in  all  lintish  wild  rabbits,  and  sLill 
more  plainly  developed  in  the  large  lop- 
eared  rabbits.  In  a  half-wild  rabbit  from 
Sandon  Park,-*^  a  hsemal  spine  was  moder- 
ately well  developed  on  the  under  side  of 
the  twelfth  dorsal  vertebra,  and  I  have 
seen  this  in  no  other  specimen. 

LiDiihar  Tertehrw. — I  have  stated  that 
in  two  cases  there  were  eight  instead  of 
seven  lumbar  vertebrae.  The  thiid  lumbar 
vertebrae  in  one  skeleton  of  a  wild  British 
rabbit,  and  in  one  of  the  Porto  Santo  feral 
rabbits,  had  a  haemal  spine;  whilst  in  four 
skeletons  of  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  and  in 
the  Himalavan  rabbit,  this  same  vertebra 
had  a  well  developed  haemal  spine. 

Pelvis.- — In  four  wild  specimens  this 
bone    was    almost    absolutelv    identical    in 

shape;  but  in  several  domes 


Fig.  15. — Terminal  bone 
of  Sternum,  of  natural 
size.  A.  Wild  Kahhit. 
B.  Hare-coloured,  Lop- 
eared  liiihbit.  C.  Hare- 
coloured  Spanish  liab- 
bit.  iN.B.Thelelt-hand 
angle  of  the  upper  ar- 
ticular extremity  of  B 
was  broken,  and  has 
been  accidentally  thus 
rcprescntL'd.) 


B 


Fig.  16. — Acromion  of  Scapula,  of  natural 
size.   A.  Wild  Rabbit.     B,  C,  D,  Large, 


Lop-eared  Eabbits. 

"  These  rabbits  have  rim  wild 
for  a  considerable  time  in  Sandon 


ticated  breeds  shades  of  dif- 
ferences could  be  distin- 
guished. In  tlie  large  lop- 
eared  rabbits,  the  whole  up- 
per part  of  the  ilium  is 
straighter,or  less  splayed  out- 
wards, than  in  the  wild  rab- 
bit ;  and  the  tuberosity  on  the 
inner  lip  of  the  anterior  and 
upper  part  of  the  ilium  is  pro- 
portionally more  prominent. 
Sternum. — The  posterior 
end  of  the  posterior  sternal 
bone  in  the  wild  rabbit  (Fig. 
L')  a)  is  thin  and  slightly  en- 
larged; in  some  of  the  large 
lop-eared  rabbits  (b)  it  is 
much  more  enlarged  towards 
the  extremitv;  whilst  in 
other  specimens  (c)  it  keeps 
nearly  of  the  same  breadth 
from  end  to  end,  but  is  much 
thicker  at  the  e.xtremitv. 


Park,  and  in  other  places  In  Staf- 
fordshire  and    Shropshire.      They 


126  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

Scapula. — The  acromion  sends  out  a  rectangular  bar,  ending  in 
an  oblique  knob,  which  latter  in  the  wild  rabbit  (Fig.  16,  a)  varies 
a  little  in  shape  and  size,  as  does  the  apex  of  the  acromion  in 
sharpness,  and  the  part  just  below  the  rectangular  bar  in  breadth. 
But  the  variations  in  these  respects  in  the  wild  rabbits  are  veiy 
slight:  whilst  in  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  they  are  considerable. 
Thus  in  some  specimens  (b)  the  oblique  terminal  knob  is  developed 
into  a  short  bar,  forming  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  rectangular 
bar.  In  another  specimen  (c)  these  two  unequal  bars  form  nearly 
a  straight  line.  The  apex  of  the  acromion  varies  much  in  breadth 
and  sharpness,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Figs.  B,  c,  and  d. 

Liiiihs. — In  tliese  I  could  detect  no  variation;  but  tlie  bones  of 
the  feet  were  too  troublesome  to  compare  with  much  care. 

I  have  now  described  all  the  differences  in  the  skeletons 
which  I  have  observed.  It  is  impossible  not  to  be  struck  with 
the  high  degree  of  variability  or  plasticity  of  many  of  the 
bones.  We  see  how  erroneous  the  often-repeated  statement 
is,  that  only  the  crests  of  the  bones  w^hich  give  attachment  to 
muscles  vary  in  shape,  and  that  only  parts  of  slight  impor- 
tance become  modified  under  domestication.  No  one  will 
say,  for  instance,  that  the  occipital  foramen,  or  the  atlas, 
or  the  third  cervical  vertebra  is  a  part  of  slight  importance. 
If  the  several  vertebrae  of  the  wild  and  lop-eared  rabbits,  of 
which  figures  have  been  given,  had  been  found  fossil,  pakeon- 
tologists  would  have  declared  without  hesitation  that  they 
had  belonged  to  distinct  species. 

Tlie  effects  of  the  use  and  disuse  of  parts. — In  the  large  lop- 
eared  rabbits  the  relative  proportional  length  of  the  bones  of  the 
same  leg,  and  of  the  front  and  hind  legs  compared  with  each  other, 
have  remained  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  wild  rabbit;  but  in 
weight,  the  bones  of  the  hind  legs  apparently  have  not  increased 
in  due  proportion  with  the  front  legs.  The  weight  of  the  whole 
body  in  the  large  rabbits  examined  by  me  was  from  twice  to  twice 
and  a  half  as  great  as  that  of  the  wild  rabbit;  and  the  weight  of 
the  bones  of  the  front  and  hind  limbs  taken  together  (excluding 
the  feet,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  cleaning  so  many  small 
bones)  has  increased  in  the  large  lop-eared  rabbits  in  nearly  the 
same  proportion ;  consequently  in  due  proportion  to  the  weight 
of  body  which  they  have  to  support.  If  we  take  the  length  of  the 
body  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  the  limbs  of  the  large  rabbits 

originated,  as  I  have  been  in-  in?  white  witli  a  streali  aloni;  the 
formed  by  tlie  game-keeper,  from  spine,  anrl  with  the  ears  and  cer- 
variously-coloured  domestic  rab-  tain  marks  abont  the  head  of  a 
bits  which  liad  been  turned  out.  bhiolvish-grey  tint.  They  have 
They  vary  in  colour;  l:)ut  many  ratlier  longer  bodies  than  corn- 
are    symmetrically    coloured,    be-  mon  rabbits. 


Chap.  IV.  EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE.  127 

have  not  increased  in  length  in  due  proportion  by  one  inch  and  a 
half.  Again,  if  we  take  as  the  standard  of  comparison  the  length 
of  the  skull,  which,  as  we  have  before  seen,  has  not  increased  in 
length  in  due  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  body,  tlie  limbs  will 
be  found  to  be,  proportionally  with  those  of  the  wild  rabbit,  from 
half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  too  short.  Hence,  whatever 
standard  of  comparison  be  taken,  the  limb-bones  of  the  large  lop- 
eared  rabbits  liave  not  increased  in  length,  though  they  have  in 
weight,  in  full  proportion  to  the  other  parts  of  the  frame;  and 
this,  I  presume,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  inactive  life  which 
during  many  generations  they  have  spent.  Nor  has  the  scai)ula 
increased  in  length  in  due  proportion  to  the  increased  length  of 
the  body. 

The  capacity  of  the  osseous  case  of  the  brain  is  a  more  inter- 
esting point,  to  which  I  was  led  to  attend  by  finding,  as  previously 
stated,  that  ^ith  all  domesticated  rabbits  the  length  of  the  skull 
relatively  to  its  breadth  has  greatly  increased  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  wild  rabbits.  If  we  had  possessed  a  large  number  of 
domesticated  rabbits  of  nearly  the  same  size  with  the  wild  rabbits, 
it  would  have  been  a  simple  task  to  have  measured  and  compared 
the  capacities  of  their  skulls.  But  this  is  not  the  case:  almost  all 
the  domestic  breeds  have  larger  bodies  than  wild  rabbits,  and  the 
lop-eared  kinds  are  more  than  double  their  weight.  As  a  small 
animal  has  to  exert  its  senses,  intellect,  and  instincts  equally  with 
a  large  animal,  we  ought  not  by  any  means  to  expect  an  animal 
twice  or  thrice  as  large  as  another  to  have  a  brain  of  double  or 
treble  the  size."^  Now,  after  weighing  the  bodies  of  four  wild 
rabbits,  and  of  four  large  but  not  fattened  lop-eared  rabbits,  I  find 
that  on  an  average  the  wild  are  to  the  lop-eared  in  weight  as  1 
to  2.17;  in  average  length  of  body  as  1  to  1.41;  whilst  in  capacity 
of  skull  they  are  as  1  to  1.15.  Hence  we  see  that  the  capacity  of 
the  skull,  and  consequently  the  size  of  the  brain,  has  increased 
but  little,  relativelv  to  the  increased  size  of  the  bodv;  and  this 
fact  explains  the  narrowness  of  the  skull  relatively  to  its  length 
in  all  domestic  rabbits. 

In  the  upper  half  of  the  following  table  I  have  given  the  meas- 
uiements  of  the  skull  of  ten  wild  rabbits;  and  in  the  lower  half, 
of  eleven  tlioroughly  domesticated  kinds.  As  these  rabbits  differ 
so  greatly  in  size,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  standard  by  which 
to  compare  the  capacities  of  their  skulls.  I  have  selected  the 
length  of  skull  as  the  best  standard,  for  in  the  larger  rabbits  it  has 
not,  as  already  stated,  increased  in  length  so  much  as  the  body; 
but  as  the  skull,  like  every  other  part,  varies  in  length,  neither  it 
nor  any  other  part  affords  a  perfect  standard. 

In  the  first  column  of  figures  the  extreme  length  of  the  skull  is 
given  in  inches  and  decimals.     I  am  aware  that  these  measure- 

'"^  Srr  Prof.  Owen's  remarks  on  fore  Brit.  Association,  1S62:  with 

this  subject   in   his  paper   on   the  respect  to  Birds,   sec.  *  Proc.   Zoo- 

*  Zoological     Significance     of     the  log.  Soc.,'  Jan.  11th,  1S4S,  p.  8. 
Brain,  l^cc.,  of  Man,  &c.,'  read  be- 


128  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

ments  pretend  to  greater  accuracy  than  is  possible;  but  I  have 
found  it  the  least  trouble  to  record  the  exact  length  which  the 
compass  gave.  The  second  and  third  columns  give  the  length  and 
\\'eight  of  body,  whenever  these  observations  were  made.  The 
fourth  column  gives  the  capacity  of  the  skull  by  the  weight  of 
small  shot  Avith  which  the  skulls  were  filled;  but  it  is  not  pre- 
tended that  these  weights  are  accurate  within  a  few  grains.  In 
the  fifth  column  the  capacity  is  given  which  the  skull  ought  to 
have  had  by  calculation,  according  to  the  length  of  skull,  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  the  wild  rabbit  No.  1 ;  in  the  sixth  column 
the  difference  between  the  actual  and  calculated  capacities,  and 
in  the  seventh  the  percentage  of  increase  or  decrease,  are  given. 
For  instance,  as  the  wild  rabbit  Xo.  5  has  a  shorter  and  lighter 
body  than  the  wild  rabbit  No.  1,  we  might  have  expected  that  its 
skull  would  have  had  less  capacity;  the  actual  capacity,  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  weight  of  shot,  is  875  grains,  Avhich  is  97  grains 
less  than  that  of  the  first  rabbit.  But  comparing  these  two  rab- 
bits by  the  length  of  their  skulls,  we  see  that  in  Xo.  1  the  skull 
is  3.15  inches  in  length,  and  in  Xo.  5  2.96  inches  in  length;  accord- 
ing to  this  ratio,  the  brain  of  Xo.  5  ought  to  have  had  a  capacity 
of  913  grains  of  shot,  which  is  above  the  actual  capacity,  but  only 
by  38  grains.  Or,  to  put  the  case  in  another  way  (as  in  column 
vii),  the  brain  oi  this  small  rabbit,  Xo.  5,  for  every  100  grains  of 
weight  is  only  4  grains  too  light, — that  is,  it  ought,  according  to 
the  standard  rabbit  No.  Ij  to  have  been  4  per  cent,  heavier.  I 
have  taken  the  rabbit  Xo.  1  as  the  standard  of  comparison  be- 
cause, of  the  skulls  having  a  full  aveiage  length,  this  has  the  least 
capacity;  so  that  it  is  the  least  favourable  to  the  result  which  I 
wish  to  show,  namely,  that  the  brain  in  all  long-domesticated  rab- 
bits has  decreased  in  size,  either  actually  or  relatively  to  the 
length  of  the  head  and  body,  in  comparison  with  the  brain  of  the 
wild  rabbit.  Had  I  taken  tlie  Irish  rabbit,  X"o.  3,  as  the  standard, 
the  following  results  would  have  been  somewhat  more  striking. 

Turning  to  the  table:  the  first  four  wild  rabbits  have  skulls  of 
the  same  length,  and  these  ditTer  but  little  in  capacity.  The  San- 
don  rabbit  (Xo,  4)  is  interesting,  as,  though  now  wild,  it  is  known 
to  be  descended  from  a  domesticated  breed,  as  is  still  shown  by 
its  peculiar  colouring  and  longer  body;  nevertheless  the  skull  has 
recovered  its  normal  length  and  full  capacity.  The  next  three  rab- 
bits arc  wild,  but  of  small  size,  and  they  all  have  skulls  with 
slightly  lessened  capacities.  The  three  Porto  Santo  feral  rabbits 
(Xos.  8  to  10)  offer  a  perplexing  case;  their  bodies  are  greatly 
reduced  in  size,  as  in  a  lesser  degree  are  their  skulls  in  length  and 
in  actual  capacity,  in  comparison  with  the  skulls  of  wild  English 
rabbits.  But  when  we  compare  the  capacities  of  the  skull  in  the 
three  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  Ave  observe  a  surprising  difference, 
which  does  not  stand  in  any  relation  to  the  slight  difi'erence  in  the 
length  of  their  skulls,  nor,  as  I  believe,  to  any  difference  in  the 
size  of  their  bodies;  but  I  neglected  weighing  separately  their 
bodies.     I  can  hardly  suppose  that  the  medullary  matter  of  the 


Chap.  IV.  EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE.  129 

brain  in  these  three  rabbits,  living  under  similar  conditions,  can 
differ  as  much  as  is  indicated  by  the  proportional  dillerence  of 
capacity  in  their  skulls;  nor  do  I  know  whether  it  is  possible  that 
one  brain  may  contain  considerably  more  lluid  than  iuiother. 
Hence  I  can  throw  no  light  on  this  case. 

Looking  to  the  lower  half  of  the  Table,  which  gives  the  meas- 
urements of  domesticated  rabbits,  we  see  that  in  all  the  capacity 
of  the  skull  is  less,  but  in  very  various  degrees,  than  miglit  have 
been  anticipated  according  to  the  length  of  their  skulls,  relatively 
to  that  of  the  wild  rabbit  No.  1.  In  line  22  the  average  measure- 
ments of  seven  large  lop-eared  rabbits  are  given.  Now  the  ques- 
tion arises,  has  the  average  capacity  of  the  skull  in  these  seven 
large  rabbits  increased  as  much  as  might  have  been  expected  from 
their  greatly  increased  size  of  body?  We  may  endeavour  to  an- 
swer this  question  in  two  ways:  in  the  upper  half  of  the  Table  we 
have  measurements  of  the  skulls  of  six  small  wild  rabbits  (Nos. 
5  to  10),  and  we  find  that  on  an  average  the  skulls  are  .18  of  an 
inch  shorter,  and  in  capacity  91  grains  less,  than  the  average 
length  and  capacity  of  the  three  first  wild  rabbits  on  the  list. 
The  seven  large  lop-eared  rabbits,  on  an  average,  have  skulls  4.11 
inches  in  length,  and  113G  grains  in  capacity;  so  that  these  skulls 
have  increased  i»  length  more  than  five  times  as  much  as  the 
skulls  of  the  six  small  wild  rabbits  have  decreased  in  length;  hence 
we  might  have  expected  that  the  skulls  of  the  large  lop-eared  rab- 
bits would  have  increased  in  capacity  five  times  as  much  as  the 
skulls  of  the  six  small  rabbits  have  decreased  in  capacity;  and  this 
would  have  given  an  average  increased  capacity  of  455  grains, 
whilst  the  real  average  increase  is  only  155  grains.  Again,  tlie 
large  lop-eared  rabbits  have  bodies  of  nearly  the  same  weight  and 
size  as  the  common  hare,  but  their  heads  are  longer;  consequently, 
if  the  lop-eared  rabbits  had  been  wild,  it  might  have  been  expected 
that  their  skulls  would  have  had  nearly  the  same  capacity  as  that 
of  the  skull  of  the  hare.  But  this  is  far  from  being  the  case;  for 
the  average  capacity  of  the  two  hare-skulls  (Nos.  23,  24)  is  so 
much  larger  than  the  average  capacity  of  the  seven  lop-eared 
skulls,  that  the  latter  would  have  to  be  increased  21  per  cent,  to 
come  up  to  the  standard  of  the  hare.'^ 

I  have  previously  remarked  that,  if  we  had  possessed  many 
domestic  rabbits  of  the  same  average  size  with  the  wild  rabbit,  it 
would  have  been  easy  to  compare  the  capacity  of  their  skulls. 
Now  the  Himalayan,  ISIoscow,  and  Angora  rabbits  (Nos.  11,  12, 
13  of  Table)  are  only  a  little  larger  in  bod}^  and  have  skulls  only  a 

2^  This  standard   is   apparently  weisrht    as    the    rabbit    No.    1    in 

considernblv     too     low.     for     Dr.  niv  list.     Now  the  contents  of  the 

Crisp   ('  Proc.   Zoolo?.   Soc.,'   ISGl,  skull  of  rabltit  No.  1  in  shot  is  in 

p.  86)  gives  210  grains  as  the  ac-  my  table  972  gniins;   niul   acford- 

tual    weight    of    the    brain    of    a  ing  to  Dr.   Crisp's  ratio  of  12."i  to 

hare  which    weighed   7    lbs.,    and  210,   the  skull  of  the   hare  ought 

125  grains  as  the   weight   of  the  to  have  contained  10.32  grains  of 

brain  of  a  rabbit  which  weighed  shot,  instead  of  only  (in  the  larg- 

3  lbs.    5   oz.,    that   is,    the    same  est  hare  in  my  table)  14.j5  grains. 


130 


DOMESTIC  RABBITS. 


Chap.  IV. 


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Chap.  IY.  EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE.  131 

little  longer,  than  the  v/ild  animal,  and  we  see  that  the  actual 
capacity  of  their  skulls  is  less  than  in  the  wild  animal,  and  con- 
siderably less  by  calculation  (column  7),  according  to  the  differ- 
ence in  the  length  of  their  skulls.  The  narrowness  of  the  brain- 
case  in  these  three  rabbits  could  be  plainly  seen  and  proved  by  ex- 
ternal measurement.  The  Chinchilla  rabbit  (No.  14)  is  a  consid- 
erably larger  animal  than  the  wild  rabbit,  yet  the  capacity  of  its 
skull  only  slightly  exceeds  that  of  the  wild  rabbit.  The  Angora 
rabbit,  No.  13,  offers  the  most  remarkable  case;  this  animal  in  its 
pure  white  colour  and  length  of  silky  fur  bears  the  stamp  of  long 
domesticity.  It  has  a  considerably  longer  head  and  body  than 
the  wild  rabbit,  but  the  actual  capacity  of  its  skull  is  less  than 
that  of  even  the  little  wild  Porto  Santo  rabbits.  By  the  standard 
of  the  length  of  skull  the  capacity  (see  column  7)  is  only  half 
of  what  it  ought  to  have  been!  I  kept  this  individual  animal 
alive,  and  it  was  not  unhealthy  nor  idiotic.  This  case  of  the 
Angora  rabbit  so  much  surprised  me,  that  I  repeated  all  the  meas- 
urements and  found  them  correct.  I  have  also  compared  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  skull  of  the  Angora  with  that  of  the  wild  rabbit  by 
other  standards,  namely,  by  the  length  and  weight  of  the  bodj', 
and  by  the  weight  of  the  limb-bones;  but  by  all  these  standards 
the  brain  appears  to  be  much  too  small,  though  in  a  less  degree 
when  the  standard  of  the  limb-bones  was  used;  and  this  latter  cir- 
cumstance may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  limbs  of  this  an- 
ciently domesticated  breed  having  become  much  reduced  in  weight, 
from  its  long-continued  inactive  life.  Hence  I  infer  that  in  the 
Angora  breed,  which  is  said  to  differ  from  other  breeds  in  being 
quieter  and  more  social,  the  capacity  of  the  skull  has  really  under- 
gone a  remarkable  amount  of  reduction. 

From  the  several  facts  above  given, — namely,  firstly,  that 
the  actual  capacity  of  the  skull  in  the  Himalayan,  Moscow, 
and  Angora  breeds,  is  less  than  in  the  wild  rabbit,  though 
they  are  in  all  their  dimensions  rather  larger  animals;  sec- 
ondly, that  the  capacity  of  the  skull  of  the  large  lop-eared 
rabbits  has  not  been  increased  in  nearly  the  same  ratio  as 
the  capacity  of  the  skull  of  the  smaller  wdld  rabbits  has  been 
decreased ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  capacity  of  the  skull  in  these 
same  large-lop-eared  rabbits  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the 
hare,  an  animal  of  nearly  the  same  size, — I  conclude,  not- 
withstanding the  remarkable  differences  in  capacity  in  the 
skulls  of  the  small  Porto  Santo  rabbits,  and  likewise  in  the 
large  lop-eared  kinds,  that  in  all  long-domesticated  rabbits 
the  brain  has  either  by  no  means  increased  in  due  proportion 
with  the  increased  length  of  the  head  and  increased  size  of 
the  body,  or  that  it  has  actually  decreased  in  size,  relatively 
10 


132  DOMESTIC   RABBITS.  Chap.  IV. 

to  what  would  have  occurred  had  these  animals  lived  in  a 
state  of  nature.  When  we  remember  that  rabbits,  from  hav- 
ing been  domesticated  and  closely  confined  during  many 
generations,  cannot  have  exerted  their  intellect,  instincts, 
senses,  and  voluntary  movements,  either  in  escaping  from 
various  dangers,  or  in  searching  for  food,  we  may  conclude 
that  their  brains  will  have  been  feebly  exercised,  and  conse- 
quently have  suffered  in  development.  We  thus  see  that 
the  most  important  and  complicated  organ  in  the  w^hole 
organisation  is  subject  to  the  law  of  decrease  in  size  from 
disuse. 

Finally,  let  us  sum  up  the  more  important  modifications 
which  domestic  rabbits  have  undergone,  together  with  their 
causes  as  far  as  we  can  obscurely  see  them.  By  the  supply 
of  abundant  and  nutritious  food,  together  with  little  exercise, 
and  by  the  continued  selection  of  the  heaviest  individuals, 
the  weight  of  the  larger  breeds  has  been  more  than  doubled. 
The  bones  of  the  limbs  taken  together  have  increased  in 
weight,  in  due  proportion  with  the  increased  weight  of  body, 
but  the  hind  legs  have  increased  less  than  the  front  legs ;  but 
in  length  they  have  not  increased  in  due  proportion,  and 
this  may  have  been  caused  by  the  want  of  proper  exercise. 
With  the  increased  size  of  the  body  the  third  cervical  has 
assumed  characters  proper  to  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra ;  and 
the  eighth  and  ninth  dorsal  vertebrae  have  similarly  assumed 
characters  proper  to  the  tenth  and  posterior  vertebrse.  The 
skull  in  the  larger  breeds  has  increased  in  length,  but  not  in 
due  proportion  with  the  increased  length  of  body;  the  brain 
has  not  duly  increased  in  dimensions,  or  has  even  actually 
decreased,  and  consequently  the  bony  case  for  the  brain  has 
remained  narrow,  and  by  correlation  has  affected  the  bones  of 
the  face  and  the  entire  length  of  the  skull.  The  skull  has 
thus  acquired  its  characteristic  narrowness.  From  unknown 
causes  the  supra-orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bones  and  the 
free  end  of  the  malar  bones  have  increased  in  breadth;  and 
in  the  larger  breeds  the  occipital  foramen  is  generally  much 
less  deeply  notched  than  in  wild  rabbits.  Certain  parts  of 
the  scapula  and  the  terminal  sternal  bones  have  become 
highly  variable  in  shape.  The  ears  have  been  increased  enor- 
mously in  length  and  breadth  through  continued  selection; 


Chap.  IY.  EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE.  133 

their  weig-ht,  conjoined  probably  with  the  disuse  of  their 
muscles,  has  caused  them  to  lop  downwards;  and  this  has 
affected  the  position  and  form  of  the  bony  auditory  meatus; 
and  this  again,  by  correlation,  the  position  in  a  slight  degree 
of  almost  every  bone  in  the  upper  part  of  the  skull,  and  even, 
the  position  of  the  condyles  of  the  lower  jaw. 


13J: 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 


CHAPTER    Y. 

DOMESTIC    PIGEONS. 

Enumeration  and  description  of  the  several  breeds — Individual  variability 
— Variations  of  a  remarkable  nature — Osteological  characters  :  skull, 
lower  jaw,  number  of  vertebrae — Correlation  of  growth  :  tongue  with 
beak  ;  eyelids  and  nostrils  with  wattled  skin — Xumber  of  wing- 
feathers,  and  length  of  wing — Colour  and  down — Webbed  and  feath- 
ered feet — On  the  effects  of  disuse — Length  of  feet  in  correlation  with 
length  of  beak — Length  of  sternum,  scapula,  and  furculum — Length 
of  wings — Summary  on  the  points  of  difierence  in  the  several  breeds. 

I  HAVE  been  led  to  study  domestic  pigeons  with  particular 
care,  because  the  evidence  that  all  the  domestic  races  are 
descended  from  one  known  source  is  far  clearer  than  with 
any  other  anciently  domesticated  animal.  Secondly,  because 
many  treatises  in  several  languages,  some  of  them  old,  have 
been  written  on  the  pigeon,  so  that  we  are  enabled  to  trace 
the  history  of  several  breeds.  And  lastly,  because,  from 
causes  which  we  can  partly  understand,  the  amount  of  varia- 
tion has  been  extraordinarily  great.  The  details  will  often 
be  tediously  minute;  but  no  one  who  really  wants  to  under- 
stand the  progress  of  change  in  domestic  animals,  and  espe- 
cially no  one  who  has  kept  pigeons  and  has  marked  the  great 
difference  between  the  breeds  and  the  trueness  with  which 
most  of  them  propagate  their  kind,  will  doubt  that  this 
minuteness  is  worth  while.  ISTotwithstanding  the  clear  evi- 
dence that  all  the  breeds  are  the  descendants  of  a  single 
species,  I  could  not  persuade  myself  until  some  years  had 
passed  that  the  whole  amount  of  difference  between  them, 
had  arisen  since  man  first  domesticated  the  wild  rock-pigeon. 

I  have  kept  alive  all  the  most  distinct  breeds,  which  I 
could  procure  in  England  or  from  the  Continent ;  and  have 
prepared  skeletons  of  all.  I  have  received  skins  from  Persia, 
and  a  large  number  from  India  and  other  quarters  of  the 
world.^     Since  my  admission  into  two  of  the  London  pigeon- 

^  The  Hon.  C.  Murray  has  sent        from    Persia;    and    H.M.    Consul, 
me  some  very  valuable  specimens        Mr.   Keith  Abbott,   has  given  me 


A. 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


135 


clubs,  I  have  received  the  kindest  assistance  from  many  of  the 
most  eminent  amateurs."* 

The  races  of  the  Pigeon  which  can  be  distinguished,  and 
which  breed  true,  are  very  numerous.  MM.  Boitard  and 
Corbie '  describe  in  detail  122  kinds ;  and  I  could  add  several 
European  kinds  not  known  to  them.  In  India,  judging  from 
the  skins  sent  me,  there  are  many  breeds  unknown  here ;  and 
Sir  W.  Elliot  informs  me  that  a  collection  imported  by  an 
Indian  merchant  into  Madras  from  Cairo  and  Constantinople 
included  several  kinds  unknown  in  India.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  there  exist  considerably  above  150  kinds  which  breed 
true  and  have  been  separately  named.  But  of  these  the  far 
greater  number  differ  from  each  other  only  in  unimportant 
characters.  Such  differences  will  be  here  entirely  passed 
over,  and  I  shall  confine  myself  to  the  more  important  points 
of  structure.  That  many  important  differences  exist  we  shall 
presently  see.  I  have  looked  through  the  magnificent  col- 
lection of  the  Columbid£e  in  the  British  Museum,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  forms  (such  as  the  Didunculus, 
Cal?enas,  Goura,  &c.),  I  do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  some 
domestic  races  of  the  rock-pigeon  differ  fully  as  much  from 


information  on  the  pigeons  of  the 
same  country.  I  am  deeply  in- 
debted to  Sir  Walter  Elliot  for 
an  immense  collection  of  skins 
from  Madras,  with  much  infor- 
mation regarding  tliem.  Mr. 
Blj'th  has  freely  communicated  to 
me  his  stores  of  knowledge  on 
this  and  all  other  related  sub- 
jects. The  Rajah  Sir  James 
Brooke  sent  me  specimens  from 
Borneo,  as  has  H.M.  Consul.  Mr. 
Swinhoe,  from  Amoy  in  China, 
and  Dr.  Daniell  from  the  west 
coast  of  Africa. 

-  Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  well  known 
for  his  various  contributions  to 
poultry  literature,  has  aided  me 
in  every  way  during  several 
years:  so  lias  Mr.  Tegetmeier, 
with  unwearied  kindness.  This 
latter  gentleman,  wlio  is  well 
known  for  his  works  on  poultry, 
and  who  has  largely  bred  pig- 
eons, has  loolved  over  tliis  and  the 
following  chapters.  Mr.  Bult  for- 
merly showed  me  his  unrivalled 
collection  of  Pouters,  and  gave 
me  specimens.  I  had  access  to 
Mr.    Wicking's    collection,    which 


contained  a  greater  assortment  of 
kinds  than  could  anywhere  else 
be  seen;  and  he  has  always  aided 
me  with  specimens  and  informa- 
tion given  in  the  freest  manner. 
Mr.  Haynes  and  Mr.  Corker  have 
given  me  specimens  of  their  mag- 
nificent Carriers.  To  Mr.  Harri- 
son Weir  I  am  likewise  indebted. 
Nor  must  I  by  any  means  pass 
over  the  assistance  received  from 
Mr.  J.  M.  Eaton,  Mr.  Baker.  Mr. 
Evans,  and  Mr.  .1.  Baily,  jun..  of 
Mountstreet— to  the  latter  gentle- 
man I  have  been  indebted  lor 
some  valuable  specimens.  To  all 
these  gentlemen  I  beg  permission 
to  return  my  sincere  and  cordial 
thanks. 

3  •  Les  Pigeons  de  Voliere  et 
de  Colombier,'  I'aris,  1S24.  Dur- 
ing forty-tive  years  the  sole  occu- 
pation of  M.  Corbie  was  the  care 
of  the  pigeons  l>elonging  to  the 
Duchess  of  Berry.  Bmiizzi  has 
described  a  large  number  of  col- 
oured varieties  in  Italy:  '  Lo  va- 
riazioni  dei  Colombi  domestici,* 
Padova,  1873. 


-j^36  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

each  other  in  external  characters  as  do  the  most  distinct 
natural  genera.  We  may  look  in  vain  through  the  288 
known  species  *  for  a  beak  so  small  and  conical  as  that  of  the 
short-faced  tumbler;  for  one  so  broad  and  short  as  that  of 
the  barb;  for  one  so  long,  straight,  and  narrow,  with  its  enor- 
mous wattles,  as  that  of  the  English  carrier;  for  an  expanded 
upraised  tail  like  that  of  the  fantail;  or  for  an  oesophagus 
like  that  of  the  pouter.  I  do  not  for  a  moment  pretend  that 
the  domestic  races  differ  from  each  other  in  their  whole  or- 
ganisation as  much  as  the  more  distinct  natural  genera.  I 
refer  only  to  external  characters,  on  which,  however,  it  must 
be  confessed  that  most  genera  of  birds  have  been  founded. 
"When,  in  a  future  chapter,  we  discuss  the  principle  of  selec- 
tion as  followed  by  man,  w^e  shall  clearly  see  why  the  differ- 
ences between  the  domestic  races  are  almost  always  confined 
to  external,  or  at  least  to  externally  visible,  characters. 

Owing  to  the  amount  and  gradations  of  difference  be- 
tween the  several  breeds,  I  have  found  it  indispensable  in  the 
following  classification  to  rank  them  under  Groups,  Races, 
and  Sub-races ;  to  which  varieties  and  sub-varieties,  all  strict- 
ly inheriting  their  proper  characters,  must  often  be  added. 
Even  with  the  individuals  of  the  same  sub-variety,  when 
long  kept  by  different  fanciers,  different  strains  can  some- 
times be  recognised.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  if  well- 
characterized  forms  of  the  several  races  had  been  found  wild, 
all  would  have  been  ranked  as  distinct  species,  and  several  of 
them  would  certainly  have  been  placed  by  ornithologists  in 
distinct  genera.  A  good  classification  of  the  various  do- 
mestic breeds  is  extremely  difficult,  owdng  to  the  manner 
in  which  many  of  the  forms  graduate  into  each  other;  but 
it  is  curious  how  exactly  the  same  difficulties  are  encountered, 
and  the  same  rules  have  to  be  followed,  as  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  any  natural  but  difficult  group  of  organic  beings.  An 
"  artificial  classification "  might  be  followed  which  would 
"present  fewer  difficulties  than  a  "  natural  classification ;  "  but 
then  it  would  interrupt  many  plain  affinities.  Extreme 
forms  can  readily  be  defined;  but  intermediate  and  trouble- 

*  '  Coup    d'Oeil    snr   I'Orde    des        makes  288  species,   ranked  under 
Pigeons,'  par  Prince  C.   L.   Bona-        85  genera, 
parte,    Paris,    1855.      Tliis   autlior 


r 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION   OF  BREEDS.  137 

some  forms  often  destroy  our  definitions.  Forms  which  may- 
be called  "  aberrant "  must  sometimes  be  included  within 
groups  to  which  they  do  not  accurately  belong.  Characters 
of  all  kinds  must  be  used;  but  as  with  birds  in  a  state  of 
nature,  those  afforded  by  the  beak  are  the  best  and  most 
readily  appreciated.  It  is  not  possible  to  weigh  the  im- 
portance of  all  the  characters  which  have  to  be  used  so  as  to 
make  the  groups  and  sub-groups  of  equal  value.  Lastly,  a 
group  may  contain  only  one  race,  and  another  and  less  dis- 
tinctly defined  group  may  contain  several  races  and  sub-races, 
and  in  this  case  it  is  difficult,  as  in  the  classification  of 
natural  species,  to  avoid  placing  too  high  a  value  on  the 
number  of  forms  which  a  group  may  contain. 

In  my  measurements  I  have  never  trusted  to  the  eye ;  and 
when  speaking  of  a  part  being  large  or  small,  I  always  refer 
to  the  wild  rock-pigeon  {Columba  livia)  as  the  standard  of 
comparison.  The  measurements  are  given  in  decimals  of  an 
inch.^ 

I  will  now  give  a  brief  description  of  all  the  principal 
breeds.  The  diagram  on  the  following  page  may  aid  the 
reader  in  learning  their  names  and  seeing  their  affinities. 
The  rock-pigeon,  or  Columha  livia  (including  under  this 
name  two  or  three  closely-allied  sub-species  or  geographical 
races,  hereafter  to  be  described),  may  be  confidently  viewed, 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  as  the  common  parent- 
form.  The  names  in  italics  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
page  show  us  the  most  distinct  breeds,  or  those  which  have 
undergone  the  greatest  amount  of  modification.     The  lengths 

5  As  I  so  often  refer  to  the  size  of  two  \\i\i\  birds,  liiiidly  sent  me 

of  the  C  livia.  or  rock-pigeon,  it  by    Dr.    Edmondstone    from    the 

may    be    convenient    to    give    the  Shetland  Islands: 
mean  between  the  measurements  Inchos 

Length  from  feathered  base  of  beak  to  end  of  tail '^j/l 

from  tip  of  bea 
of  tail-feathers 


"  "  to  oil-gland i-'>> 

from  tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail I'^v^y 

of  tail-feathers or  -^ 

from  tip  to  tip  of  wing *'J^-.V? 

"        of  folded  wing •'Xt 

Beak.— Length  from  tip  of  beak  to  feathered  base      . I' 

Thickness,  measured  vertically  at  distal  end  of  nostrils       '        '  'Xl 

"        Breadth,  measured  at  same  place      .        .        .        •        ■  ■,.  r  ,      ' a     i  \ 
Feet.— Length  from  end  of  middle  toe  (without  claw)  to  distal  end  or  I    077 
tibia  .        .        •        •        •        •        •        ■        ■       .' 

Length    from    end    of    middle    toe    to    end  of    hind  toe  (without/    2.02 

claws') ' 

Weight  14i  ounces. 


138 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS. 


Chap.  V. 


'    I  J,  "i  ll- 


Fig.  17. — The  Kock  Pigeon,   or  C')lnniba  livia."    The  parent  form  of  all 

domesticated  Pigeons- 


^  This  drawing  was  m-ide  from 
a  dead  bird.  Th^  six  following 
figures  were  drawn  with  great 
care  by  Mr.  Lul^e  Wells  from  liv- 
ing birds  selected  by  Mr.   Teget- 


meier.  It  may  be  confidently  as- 
serted that  tbp  characters  of  the 
six  Ijreeds  which  have  been  fig- 
ured are  not  in  the  least  exag- 
gerated. 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


139 


O 


> 

G 
O 


O 

Pi 

t> 

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Dove-cot  pigeon. 
Swallow. 

Spot. 

NU71. 

English  Frill-back. 

lyaugher. 

Tnimpeter. 


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140  DOMESTIC  PIGEOXS.  Chap.  V. 

of  the  dotted  lines  rudely  represent  the  degree  of  distinctness 
of  each  breed  from  the  parent-stock,  and  the  names  placed 
under  each  other  in  the  columns  show  the  more  or  less 
closely  connecting  links.  The  distances  of  the  dotted  lines 
from  each  other  approximately  represent  the  amount  of  dif- 
ference between  the  several  breeds. 

Group  I. 

This  group  includes  a  single  race,  that  of  the  Pouters. 
If  the  most  strongly  marked  sub-race  be  taken,  namely,  the 
Improved  English  Pouter,  this  is  perhaps  the  most  distinct 
of  all  domesticated  pigeons. 

Race  I. — Pouter  Pigeons.    (Kropftauben,  German.    Grosses- 
gorges,  or  boulans,  French.) 

(Esophagus  of  great  size,  barely  separated  from  the  crop, 
often  inflated.  Body  and  legs  elongated.  Beak  of  moderate 
dimensions. 

Sub-race  I. — The  improved  English  Pouter,  when  its  crop  is  fully 
inflated,  presents  a  truly  astonishing  appearance.  The  habit  of 
slightly  inflating  the  crop  is  common  to  all  domestic  pigeons,  but 
is  carried  to  an  extreme  in  the  Pouter.  The  crop  does  not  difl"er, 
except  in  size,  from  that  of  other  pigeons;  but  is  less  plainly 
separated  by  an  oblique  constriction  from  the  oesophagus.  The 
diameter  of  the  upper  part  of  the  oesophagus  is  immense,  even  close 
up  to  the  head.  The  beak  in  one  bird  which  I  possessed  was 
almost  completely  buried  when  the  oesophagus  was  fully  expanded. 
The  males,  especially  when  excited,  pout  more  than  the  females, 
and  they  glory  in  exercising  this  power.  If  a  bird  will  not,  to  use 
the  technical  expression,  "  play,"  the  fancier,  as  I  have  witnessed, 
by  taking  the  beak  into  his  mouth,  blows  him  up  like  a  balloon, 
and  the  bird,  then  pufl'ed  up  with  wind  and  pride,  struts  about, 
retaining  his  magnificent  size  as  long  as  he  can.  Pouters  often 
take  flight  with  their  crops  inflated.  After  one  of  my  birds  had 
swallowed  a  good  meal  of  peas  and  water,  as  he  flew  up  in  order  to 
disgorge  them  and  feed  his  nearly  fledged  young,  I  heard  the  peas 
rattling  in  his  inflated  crop  as  if  in  a  bladder.  When  flying,  they 
often  strike  the  backs  of  their  wings  together,  and  thus  make  a 
clapping  noise. 

Pouters  stand  remarkably  upright,  and  their  bodies  are  thin 
and  elongated.  In  connection  with  this  form  of  body,  the  ribs  are 
generally  broader  and  the  vertebrge  more  numerous  than  in  other 
breeds.  From  their  manner  of  standing  their  legs  appear  longer 
than  they  really  are,  though,  in  proportion  with  those  of  C.  livia, 
the  legs  and  feet  are   actually  longer.     The   wings  appear  much 


Chap.  Y. 


DESCRIPTION  OF   BREEDS. 


141 


elongated,  but  by  measurement,  in  relation  to  tlie  length  of  body, 
this  IS  not  the  case.  The  beak  likewise  appears  ]on<rer,  but  it  i3 
in  fact  a  little  shorter  (about  .03  of  an  inch),  proporlionallv  with 
the  size  of  the  body,  and  relatively  to  the  beak  of  tlie  rock-pigeon. 


Fig.  18. — English  Pouter. 

The  Pouter,  though  not  bulky,  is  a  larire  bird ;  I  measured  one 
Avhich  was  34|  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  winir.  and  19  inches  from 
tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail.  In  a  "wild  rock-jiiircon  from  the  Slict- 
land  Islands  the  same  measurements  gave  only  28^  and  HJ.    There 


142  DOMESTIC   PIGEOXS.  Chap.  V. 

are  many  sub-varieties  of  the  Pouter  of  different  colours,  but 
these  I  pass  over. 

Sub-race  II.  Dutch  Pouter. — This  seems  to  be  the  parent-form 
of  our  improved  English  Pouter.  I  kept  a  pair,  but  I  suspect  that 
they  were  not  pure  birds.  They  are  smaller  than  English  pouters, 
and  less  well  developed  in  all  their  characters.  Neumeister '  says 
that  the  wings  are  crossed  over  the  tail,  and  do  not  reach  to  its 
extremity. 

Sub-race  III.  The  Lille  Pouter. — I  know  this  breed  only  from 
description.'^  It  approaches  in  general  form  the  Dutch  Pouter,  but 
the  inflated  oesophagus  assumes  a  spherical  form,  as  if  the  pigeon 
had  SAvallowed  a  large  orange,  which  had  stuck  close  under  the 
beak.  This  inflated  ball  is  represented  as  rising  to  a  level  with  the 
crown  of  the  head.  The  middle  toe  alone  is  feathered.  A  variety 
of  this  sub-race,  called  the  claquant,  is  described  by  MM.  Boitard 
and  Corbie;  it  pouts  but  little,  and  is  characterised  by  the  habit 
of  violently  hitting  its  wings  together  over  its  back, — a  habit 
which  the  English  Pouter  has  in  a  sliglit  degree. 

Sub-race  IV.  Common  German  Pouter. — I  know  this  bird  only 
from  the  figures  and  description  given  by  the  accurate  Neumeister, 
one  of  the  few  writers  on  pigeons  who,  as  I  have  found,  may  always 
be  trusted.  This  sub-race  seems  considerably  different.  The  upper 
part  of  the  oesophagus  is  much  less  distended.  The  bird  stands 
less  upright.  The  feet  are  not  feathered,  and  the  legs  and  beak 
are  shorter.  In  these  respects  there  is  an  approach  in  form  to 
the  common  rock-pigeon.  The  tail-feathers  are  very  long,  yet  the 
tips  of  the  closed  wings  extend  beyond  the  end  of  the  tail ;  and  the 
length  of  the  wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  and  of  the  body,  is  greater 
than  in  the  English  Pouter. 


o' 


Group  II. 

This  group  includes  three  Races,  namely,  Carriers,  Kunts, 
and  Barbs,  which  are  manifestly  allied  to  each  other.  In- 
deed, certain  carriers  and  runts  pass  into  each  other  by  such 
insensible  gradations  that  an  arbitrary  line  has  to  be  drawn 
between  them.  Carriers  also  graduate  through  foreign  breeds 
into  the  rock-pigeon.  Yet,  if  well-characterised  Carriers  and 
Barbs  (see  figs.  19  and  20)  had  existed  as  wild  species,  no 
ornithologist  would  have  placed  them  in  the  same  genus  with 
each  other  or  with  the  rock-pigeon.  This  group  may,  as 
a  general  rule,  be  recognised  by  the  beak  being  long,  with  the 
skin  over  the  nostrils  swollen  and  often  carunculated  or 
wattled,  and  with  that  round  the  eyes  bare  and  likewise  ca- 
runculated.    The  mouth  is  very  wide,  and  the  feet  are  large. 

■''Das      Ganze      der      Tauben-  «  Boitard  and  Corbie,  '  Les  Pig- 

zueht:     Weimar,'     1837,     pi.     11       eons,'  &c.,  p.  177,  pi.  6. 
and  12. 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION  OF   BREEDS.  I43 

Nevertheless  the  Barb,  which  must  be  classed  in  this  samo 
group,  has  a  very  short  beak,  and  some  runts  have  very  little 
bare  skin  round  their  eyes. 

Kace  II.— Carriers.     (Turkische  Tauben;  pigeons  turcs 

dragons.) 

Beah  elongated,  narrow,  pointed;  eyes  surrounded  hy 
rauch  naked,  generally  carunculated,  skin;  neck  and  body 
elongated. 

Sub-race  I.  The  English  Carrier.— This  is  a  fine  bird,  of  large 
size,  close  feathered,  generally  dark-coloured,  with  an  elon^rated 
neck.  The  beak  is  attenuated  and  of  wonderful  length:  in  one 
specimen  it  was  1.4  inch  in  length  from  the  feathered  "base  to  the 
tip:  therefore  nearly  twice  as  long  as  that  of  the  rock-pigeon, 
which  measured  only  .77.  Whenever  I  compare  proportionally 
any  part  in  the  carrier  and  rock-pigeon,  I  take  the  length  of  the 
body  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail  ns  the  staml- 
ard  of  comparison;  and  according  to  this  standard,  the  beak  in 
one  Carrier  was  nearly  half  an  inch  longer  than  in  llie  rock-pigeon. 
The  upper  mandible  is  often  slightly  arched.  The  tongue  is  very 
long.  The  development  of  the  carunculated  skin  or  wattle  round 
the  eyes,  over  the  nostrils,  and  on  the  lower  mandible,  is  prodi- 
gious. The  eyelids,  measured  longitudinally,  were  in  some  speci- 
mens exactly  twice  as  long  as  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  external 
orifice  or  furrow  of  the  nostrils  w^as  also  twice  as  long.  The  open 
mouth  in  its  widest  part  was  in  one  case  .75  of  an  inch  in  width, 
whereas  in  the  rock-pigeon  it  is  only  about  .4  of  an  inch.  This 
great  width  of  mouth  is  shown  in  the  skeleton  by  the  reflexed 
edges  of  the  ramus  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  head  is  flat  on  the  sum- 
mit and  narrow  between  the  orbits.  The  feet  are  large  and  coarse ; 
the  length,  as  measured  from  end  of  hind  toe  to  end  of  middle 
toe  (without  the  claw^s),  was  in  two  specimens  2.6  inches;  and 
this,  proportionally  with  the  rock-pigeon,  is  an  excess  of  nearly 
a  quarter  of  an  inch.  One  very  fine  Carrier  measured  3U  inches 
from  tip  to  tip  of  wing.  Birds  of  this  sub-race  are  too  valuable  to 
be  flown  as  carriers, 

Si(b-race  II.  Dragons;  Persian  Carriers. — The  English  Dragon 
diff"ers  from  the  improved  English  Carrier  in  being  smaller  in  all 
its  dimensions,  and  in  having  less  wattle  round  the  eyes  and  over 
the  nostrils,  and  none  on  the  lower  mandible.  Sir  W  Elliot  sent 
me  from  Madras  a  Bagdad  Carrier  (sometimes  called  khandc'si), 
the  name  of  w^hicli  shows  its  Persian  origin;  it  would  be  consid- 
ered here  a  very  poor  Dragon;  the  body  was  of  the  size  of  the 
rock-pigeon,  with  the  beak  a  little  longer,  namely,  1  inch  from 
the  tip  to  the  feathered  base.  The  skin  round  the  eyes  was  only 
slightly  wattled,  whilst  that  over  the  nostrils  Avas  fairly  wattled. 
The  Hon.  C.  JNIurray,  also,  sent  me  two  Carriers  direct  from  Per- 
sia; these  had   nearly   the   same   character   as   the   JNIadrae   bird, 


lU 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


Chap.  V. 


being  about  as  large  as  the  rock-pigeon,  but  the  beak  in  one  speci- 
men was  as  much  as  1,15  in  length;  the  skin  over  the  nostrils  was 
only  moderately,  and  that  round  the  eyes  scarcely  at  all  wattled. 


Suh-race  HI.    Bagadottcn-Taiihcn   of  Xeumeistcr    (Pavdotten- 
or  Hocker-Tauben). — I  owe  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Baily,  jun.,  a 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  1^5 

dead  specimen  of  this  sinonlar  breed  imported  from  Germany.  It 
is  certainly  allied  to  the  Hunts;  nevertheless,  from  its  close* aflin- 
ity  with  Carriers,  it  will  be  convenient  here  to  describe  it.  The 
beak  is  long,  and  is  hooked  or  bowed  downwards  in  a  highly  re- 
markable manner,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  woodcut  to  be  luMcafter 
given  when  I  treat  of  the  skeleton.  The  eves  are  surrounded  by 
a  M'ide  sjiace  of  bright  red  skin,  which,  as* well  as  that  over  the 
nostrils,  is  moderately  wattled.  The  breast-bone  is  remarkably 
protuberant,  being  abruptly  bowed  outwards.  The  feet  anil  tarsi 
are  of  great  length,  larger  than  in  first-rate  English  carriers. 
The  whole  bird  is  of  large  size,  but  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
body  the  feathers  of  the  wing  and  tail  are  short;  a  wild  rocU-jjig- 
eon,  of  considerably  less  size,  had  tail-feathers  4.G  inches  in  lenglTi, 
whereas  in  the  large  Bagadotten  these  feathers  were  scarcely  over 
4.1  inches  in  length.     Riedel  ^  remarks  that  it  is  a  very  silent  bird. 

Hiib-race  IV.  Bussorah  Carrier. — Two  specimens  were  scui  me 
by  Sir  W.  Elliot  from  Madras,  one  in  spirits  and  the  other  skinned. 
The  name  shows  its  Persian  origin.  It  is  much  valued  in  India, 
and  is  considered  as  a  distinct  breed  from  the  liagdad  Carrier, 
which  forms  my  second  sub-race.  At  first  I  suspected  that  these 
two  sub-races  might  have  been  recently  formed  by  crosses  with 
other  breeds,  though  the  estimation  in  which  they  are  held  ren- 
ders this  improbable;  but  in  a  Persian  treatise,^"  believed  to  have 
been  written  about  100  years  ago,  the  Bagdad  and  Bussorah  breeds 
are  described  as  distinct.  The  Bussorah  Carrier  is  of  about  the 
same  size  as  the  wild  rock-pigeon.  The  shape  of  the  beak,  with 
some  little  carunculated  skin  over  the  nostrils, — the  much  elon- 
gated eyelids, — the  broad  mouth  measured  internally, — the  nar- 
row head, — the  feet  proportionally  a  little  longer  than  in  the  rock- 
pigeon. — and  the  general  appearance,  all  show  that  this  bird  is  an 
undoubted  Carrier;  yet  in  one  specimen  the  beak  was  of  exactly 
the  same  length  as  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  the  other  specimen  the 
beak  (as  well  as  the  opening  of  the  nostrils)  was  only  a  very  little 
longer,  viz.,  by  .OS  of  an  inch.  Although  there  was  a  considerable 
space  of  bare  and  slightly  carunculated  skin  round  the  eyes,  that 
over  the  nostrils  was  only  in  a  slight  degree  rugose.  Sir  W.Elliot  in- 
forms me  that  in  the  living  bird  the  eye  seems  remarkably  large  and 
prominent,  and  the  same  fact  is  noticed  in  the  Persian  treatise;  but 
the  bony  orbit  is  barely  larger  than  that  in  the  rock-pigeon. 

Amongst  the  several  breeds  sent  to  me  from  ]\Iadr  is  by  Sir  W. 
Elliot  there  is  a  pair  of  the  Kali  Par,  black  birds  with  the  beak 
slightly  elongated,  with  the  skin  over  the  nostrils  rather  full,  and 
with  a  little  naked  skin  round  the  eyes.  This  breed  seems  more 
closely  allied  to  the  Carrier  than  to  any  other  breed,  being  nearly 
intermediate  between  the  Bussorah  Carrier  and  the  rock-])iLreon. 

The  names  applied  in  different  parts  of  Europe  and  in  India  to 
the  several  kinds  of  Carriers  all  point  to  Persia  or  the  surrounding 

»'Die  Taubenzucht,'  Ulm,  1824,  died  in  1770:   I  owe  to  the  jrreat 

s.  42.  kindness  of  Sir  W.  Elliot  a  trans- 

'0  This  treatise  was  written  by  lation   of   this   curious   treatise, 
Sayzid    Mohammed    Musari,    who 


146  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

countries  as  the  source  of  this  Race.  And  it  deserves  especial 
notice  that,  even  if  we  neglect  the  Kali  Par  as  of  doubtful  origin, 
we  get  a  series  broken  by  \evy  small  steps,  from  the  rock-pigeon, 
through  the  Bussorah,  which  sometimes  has  a  beak  not  at  all 
longer  than  that  of  the  rock-pigeon  and  with  the  naked  skin  round 
the  eyes  and  over  the  nostrils  very  slightly  swollen  and  caruncu- 
lated,  through  the  Bagdad  sub-race  and  Dragons,  to  our  improved 
English  Carriers,  which  present  so  marvellous  a  difference  from 
the  rock-pigeon  or. Columha  livla. 

Kace  III. — Runts.  (Scanderoons:  die  Florentiner  Tauben 
and  Hinkeltauben  of  Xeumeister ;  pigeon  bagadais,  pigeon 
romain.) 

Beak  long,  massive;  body  of  great  size. 

Inextricable  confusion  reigns  in  the  classification,  affinities,  and 
naming  of  Runts.  Several  characters  which  are  generally  pretty 
constant  in  other  pigeons,  such  as  the  length  of  the  wings,  tail, 
legs,  and  neck,  and  the  amount  of  naked  skin  round  the  eyes,  are 
excessively  variable  in  Runts.  When  the  naked  skin  over  the 
nostrils  and  round  the  eyes  is  considerably  developed  and  wattled, 
and  when  the  size  of  body  is  not  very  great.  Runts  graduate  in  so 
insensible  a  manner  into  Carriers,  that  the  distinction  is  quite 
arbitrary.  This  fact  is  likewise  shown  by  the  names  given  to 
"them  in  different  parts  of  Europe.  Nevertheless,  taking  the  most 
distinct  forms,  at  least  live  sub-races  (some  of  them  including 
well-marked  varieties)  can  be  distinguished,  which  differ  in  such 
important  points  of  structure,  that  they  would  be  considered  as 
good  species  in  a  state  of  nature. 

Suh-)-ace  I.  Scnjidcroon  of  English  Writers  (die  Florentiner 
and  Hinkeltauben  of  Neumeister). — Birds  of  this  sub-race,  of 
■svhich  I  kept  one  alive  and  have  since  seen  two  others,  difi'er  from 
the  Baoadotten  of  Neumeister  onlv  in  not  having  the  beak  nearly 
so  much  curved  downwards,  and  in  the  naked  skin  round  the  eyes 
and  over  the  nostrils  being  hardlv  at  all  wattled.  Nevertheless 
I  have- felt  myself  compelled  to  place  the  Bagadotten  in  Race  II., 
or  that  of  the  Carriers,  and  the  present  bird  in  Race  III.,  or  that 
of  the  Runts.  Tlie  Scanderoon  has  a  very  short,  narrow,  and  ele- 
Aated  tail :  wings  extremely  short,  so  that  the  first  primary 
feathers  were  not  longer  than  those  of  a  small  tumbler  pigeon. 
Neck  long,  much  bowed ;  breast-bone  prominent.  Beak  long,  be- 
ing 1.15  inch  from  tip  to  feathered  base;  vertically  thick;  slightly 
curved  downwards.  The  skin  over  the  nostrils  swollen,  not  wat- 
tled; naked  skin  round  the  eyes,  broad,  slightly  caruncnlatod. 
Legs  long;  feet  very  large.  Skin  of  neck  bright  red,  often  showing 
•a  naked  medial  line,  with  a  naked  red  patch  at  the  distal  end  of 
the  radius  of  the  wing.  My  bird,  as  measured  from  the  base  of 
the  beak  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  was  fully  2  inches  longer  than  the 
Tock-pigeon;  yet  the  tail  itself  was  only  4  inches  in  length,  whereas 


Chap.  V.  DESCPJPTIOX  OF  BREEDS.  UT 

in  the  roek-pigeon,  which  is  a  much  smaller  bird,   the  tail   is  4^ 
inches  in  length. 

The  Hinkel-  or  Florentiner  Taube  of  Neumeister  (Table  XIII., 
Fig.  1)  agrees  with  the  above  descripti(m  in  all  the  specified  charac- 
ters (for  the  beak  is  not  mentioned),  except  that  Xeuiiicister  ex- 
pressly says  that  the  neck  is  short,  whereas  in  my  Scandcroon  it 
was  remarkably  long  and  boAved;  so  that  the  Hinkel  forms  a  well- 
marked  variety. 

^uh-rucell.  Pigeon  ci/(/nc  and  Pigeon  Ixigddais  of  linitanl  and 
Corhie  (Scanderoon  of  French  writers). — I  kept  two  of  these  birds 
alive,  imported  from  France.  They  differed  from  the  first  sub- 
race  or  true  Scanderoon  in  the  much  greater  length  of  the  wing 
and  tail,  in  the  beak  not  being  so  long,  and  in  the  skin  about  the 
head  being  more  carunculated.  The  skin  of  the  neck  is  red;  bnt 
the  naked  patches  on  the  wings  are  absent.  One  of  my  birds 
measured  38^  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing.  By  taking  the  length 
of  the  body  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  the  two  wings  were  no 
less  tlian  5  inches  longer  than  those  of  the  rock-pigeon!  The  tail 
was  6]  inches  in  length,  and  therefore  2|  inches  longer  tlian  that  of 
the  Scanderoon, — a  bird  of  nearly  the  same  size.  The  beak  is 
longer,  thicker,  and  broader  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  proportion- 
ally with  the  size  of  body.  The  eyelids,  nostrils,  and  internal 
gape  of  mouth  are  all  proportionally  very  large,  as  in  Carriers. 
The  foot,  from  the  end  of  the  middle  to  end  of  hind  toe,  was  actu- 
ally 2.85  inches  in  length,  which  is  an  excess  of  .32  of  an  inch  over 
the  foot  of  the  rock-pigeon,  proportionally  to  the  relative  size  of 
the  two  birds. 

^uh-race  III.  ^Spani.'iJi  and  Roman  Runts. — I  am  not  sure  that 
I  am  right  in  placing  these  Runts  in  a  distinct  sub-race:  yet,  if 
we  take  well-characterized  birds,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  pro- 
priety of  the  separation.  They  are  heavy,  massive  birds,  with 
shorter  necks,  legs,  and  beaks  than  in  the  foregoing  races.  The 
skin  over  the  nostrils  is  swollen,  but  not  carunculated  ;  the  naked 
skin  round  the  eyes  is  not  very  wide,  and  only  slightly  caruncu- 
lated; and  I  have  seen  a  tine  so-called  Spanish  Runt  with  hanlly 
any  naked  skin  round  the  eyes.  Of  the  two  varieties  to  be  seen 
in  England, >one,  which  is  the  rarer,  has  very  long  wings  and  tail, 
and  agrees  pretty  closely  with  the  last  sub-race;  tlie  other,  with 
shorter  wings  and  tail,  is  apparently  the  Pigeon  romain  ordinaire 
of  Boitard  and  Corbie.  These  Runts  are  apt  to  tremble  like  Fan- 
tails.  They  are  bad  flyers.  A  few  years  ago  Mr.  Gulliver"  ex- 
hibited a  Runt  which  weighed  1  lb.  14  oz. ;  and,  as  I  am  informed 
by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  two  Runts  from  the  south  of  •  France  were 
lately  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  each  of  which  weighed  2  lbs. 
2*  oz.  A  very  fine  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands  weighed 
only  14^  oz. 

\^uh-'race  IT.  Tronfo  of  AMronrandl  (Leghorn  Runt?).— In 
Aldrovandi's  work  published  in  1600  there  is  a  coarse  woodcut  of 
a  great  Italian  pigeon,  with  an  elevated  tail,  short  legs,  massive 

"  '  Poultry   Chronicle,'    vol.    ii.  p.  573. 
11 


us 


DOMESTIC   PIGEOXS. 


Chap.  V. 


port 


._bii"ds  were  sent  me  from  ^Madras  by  Sir 
rM^r  larger  than  the  largest  rock-pigeon, 
ma#sive  beaks.     The  skin  over  the  nostrils 
Sii||htly  cariinculated,  and  they  have  some 
£%;  feet  large.     This  breed  is  intermediate 
^     nd    a    very   poor   variety   of   Hunt    or 


bodv,  and  with  the  beak  short  and  thick.  I  had  imagined  that 
this' latter  character,  so  abnormal  in  the  group,  was  merely  a  false 
representation  from  bad  drawing;  but  ]Moore,  in  his  work  pub- 
lished in  1735,  says  that  he  possessed  a  Leghorn  Runt  of  which 
"  the  beak  was  very  short  for  so  large  a  bird."  In  other  respects 
]\loore's  bird  resembled  the  first  sub-race  or  Scanderoon,  for  it 
had  a  long  bowed  q£ck,^ng  legs,  short  beak,  and  elevated  tail, 
and  not  nuich  wattfeabBm:  the  head.  So  that  Aldrovandi's  and 
Moore"s  birds  must  Hv^[<:)rmed  distinct  varieties,  both  of  which 
seem  to  be  now  exft^ct^^i  Europe.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  however,  in- 
forms me  that  he  l2l^  ^e^n  in  Madras  a  short-beaked  Kunt  im- 
)rted  from  Cairo.    *^     ^ 

Suh-racc  T'.     Mu^ssft^iadojiied  Pigeon)  of  Madras. — Skins  of 
these  handsome  chec 
W.  Elliot.     They  ai| 
with  longer  and  moi 
is  ratlier  full  and  v( 
naked  skin  round  tl^ 
between   the   rock-pi| 
Carrier. 

From  these  several  descriptions  we  see  that  with  Runts,  as  with 
Carriers,  we  have  a  tine  gradation  from  the  rock-pigeon  (with  the 
Tronfo  diverging  as  a  distinct  branch)  to  our  largest  and  most 
massive  Runts.  But  the  chain  of  alTinities,  and  many  points  of 
resemblance,  between  Runts  and  Carriers,  make  me  believe  that 
these  two  races  have  not  descended  by  independent  lines  from  the 
rock-pigeon,  but  from  some  common  parent,  as  represented  in  the 
Table,  which  had  already  acquired  a  moderately  long  beak  with 
slightly  swollen  skin  over  the  nostrils,  and  with  some  slightly 
carunculated  naked  skin  round  the  eyes. 

Race  IV. — Barbs.     (Indische  Tauben;  pigeons  polonais.) 

Beah  short,  broad,  deep;  naked  skin  round  the  eyes,  hroad 
and  carunculated;  shin  over  nostrils  slightly  swollen. 

Misled  by  the  extraordinary  shortness  and  form  of  the  beak,  I 
did  not  at  first  perceive  that  near  affinity  of  this  Race  to  that  of 
Carriers  until  the  fact  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  Mr.  Brent.  Sub- 
sequently, after  examining  the  Bussorah  Carrier,  I  saw  that  no 
very  great  amount  of  modification  would  be  requisite  to  convert 
it  into  a  Barb.  This  view  of  the  affinity  of  Barbs  to  Carriers  is 
supported  by  the  analogical  difference  between  the  short  and  long- 
beaked  Runts;  and  still  more  strongly  by  the  fact,  that  young 
Barbs  and  Dragons,  within  24  hours  after  being  hatched,  resemble 
each  other  much  more  closely  than  do  vouno-  pioeons  of  other  and 
equally  distinct  breeds.  At  this  early  age,  the  length  of  beak,  the 
swollen  skin  over  the  rather  open  nostrils,  the  gape  of  the  mouth, 
and  the  size  of  the  feet,  are  the  same  in  both;  although  these 
parts  afterwards  become  Avi  ]ely  diM'eient.  We  thus  see  that  em- 
bryology  (as  the  comparison  of  very  young  animals  may  perhaps 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


149 


be  called)   comes  into  play  in  the  classification  of  domestic  varie- 
ties, as  with  species  in  a  state  of  nature. 


Fanciers,  with  some  truth,  compare  tlie  lioad  and  boak  of  the 
Barb  to  that  of  a  bullfinch.     The  Barb,  if  found  in  a  state  of  na- 


l^Q  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

ture,  would  certainly  have  been  placed  in  a  new  genus  formed  for 
its  reception.  The  body  is  a  little  larger  than  that  of  the  rock- 
pi  oeon,  but  the  beak  is  more  than  .2  of  an  inch  shorter;  although 
shorter,  it  is  both  vertically  and  horizontally  thicker.  From  the 
outxA'ard  flexure  of  the  rami  of  the  loxxer  jaw,  the  mouth  inter- 
nally is  very  broad,  in  the  proportion  of  .6  to  .4  to  that  of  the 
rock-pigeon.  The  whole  head  is  broad.  The  skin  over  the  nostril 
is  swollen,  but  not  carunculated,  except  slightly  in  first-rate  birds 
when  old;  whilst  the  naked  skin  round  the  eye  is  broad  and  much 
carunculated.  It  is  sometimes  so  much  developed,  tliat  a  bird 
belonging  to  Mr.  Harrison  Weir  could  hardly  see  to  pick  up  food 
from  "the  ground.  The  eyelids  in  one  specimen  were  nearly  twice 
as  long  as  those  of  the  rock-pigeon.  The  feet  are  coarse  and 
strong,  but  proportionally  rather  shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon. 
The  plumage  is  generally  dark  and  uniform.  Barbs,  in  short,  may 
be  called  short-beak-ed  Carriers,  bearing  the  same  relation  to  Car- 
riers that  the  Tronfo  of  Aldrovandi  does  to  the  common  Kunt. 

Group  III. 

This  group  is  artificial,  and  includes  a  heterogeneous  col- 
lection of  distinct  forms.  It  may  be  defined  by  the  beak,  in 
well-characterized  specimens  of  the  several  races,  being 
shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  and  by  the  skin  round  the 
eyes  not  being  much  developed. 

Race  V. — Fantails. 

Suh-race  I.  European  Fantails  (Pfauentauben;  trembleurs). 
Tail  expanded,  directed  npwards,  formed  of  many  feathers;  oil- 
gland  aborted;  dodij  and  beak  rather  short. 

The  normal  number  of  tail-feathers  in  the  genus  Columba  is 
12;  but  Fantails  have  from  only  12  (as  has  been  asserted)  up  to, 
according  to  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie,  42.  I  have  counted  in  one 
•of  mv  own  birds  33,  and  at  Calcutta  Mr.  Blvth  ^-  has  counted  in  an 
iw perfect  tail  34  feathers.  In  INIadras,  as  I  am  informed  by  Sir  W. 
Elliot.  32  is  the  standard  number;  but  in  England  number  is 
much  less  valued  than  the  position  and  expansion  of  the  tail.  The 
feathers  are  arranged  in  an  irregular  double  row;  their  permanent 
fanlike  expansion  and  their  upward  direction  are  more  remark- 
able characters  than  their  increased  number.  The  tail  is  capable 
of  the  same  movements  as  in  other  pigeons,  and  can  be  depressed 
so  as  to  sweep  the  ground.  It  arises  from  a  more  expanded  basis 
than  in  other  pigeons:  and  in  three  skeletons  there  were  one  or 
two  extra  coccygeal  vertebrae.  I  have  examined  many  specimens 
of  various  colours  from  different  countries,  and  there  was  no  trace 
of  the  oil-gland;  this'  is  a  curious  case  of  abortion."         The  neck 

12  '  Annals    and    Mag.    of    Nat.        birds;  bnt  Nitzsch  (in  his  '  Ptery- 

History.'  vol.  xix.,  1847,  p.  105.  loprraphie.'  1840.  p.  n5)  stntes  tliat 

"  This    gland    occurs    in    most        it  is  absent  in  two  species  of  Co- 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


151 


lumba,  in  several  species  of  Psit- 
tacns,  in  some  species  of  Otis, 
and  in  most  or  all   birds  of  tlie 


Ostrich  ffiniily.  It  cnn  hardly  he 
an  accidental  coinci<l<Mice  thai  the 
two    species    of    Colmuba,    which 


152  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

is  thin  and  bowed  backwards.  The  breast  is  broad  and  protuber- 
ant. The  feet  are  small.  The  carriage  of  the  bird  is  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  other  pigeons;  in  good  birds  the  head  touches  the 
tail-feathers,  which  consequently  often  become  crumpled.  They 
habitually  tremble  much:  and  their  necks  have  an  extraordinary, 
apparently  convulsive,  backward  and  forward  movement.  Good 
birds  walk  in  a  singular  manner,  as  if  their  small  feet  were  stiff. 
Owing  to  their  large  tails,  they  fly  badly  on  a  windy  day.  The 
dark-coloured  varieties  are  generally  larger  than  white  Fantails. 

Although  between  the  best  and  common  Fantails,  now  existing 
in  England,  there  is  a  vast  difference  in  the  position  and  size  of 
the  tail,  in  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck,  in  the  convulsive 
movements  of  the  neck,  in  the  manner  of  walking,  and  in  the 
breadth  of  the  breast,  the  differences  so  graduate  away,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  make  more  than  one  sub-race.  Moore,  however,  an 
excellent  old  authority,^*  says,  that  in  1735  there  were  two  sorts  of 
broad-tailed  shakers  {i.e.  fantails),  "one  having  a  neck  much 
longer  and  more  slender  than  the  other;  "  and  I  am  informed  by 
Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  that  there  is  an  existing  German  Fantail  with  a 
thicker  and  shorter  beak. 

Siih-race  II.  Java  Fantail.—Mr.  Swinhoe  sent  me  from  Amoy, 
in  China,  the  skin  of  a  Fantail  belonging  to  a  breed  known  to  have 
been  imported  from  Java.  It  was  coloured  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
unlike  any  European  Fantail;  and,  for  a  Fantail,  had  a  remark- 
ably short  beak.  Although  a  good  bird  of  the  kind,  it  had  only 
14  tail-feathers;  but  Mr.  Swinhoe  has  counted  in  other  birds  of  this 
breed  from  18  to  24  tail-feathers.  From  a  rough  sketch  sent  to 
me,  it  is  evident  that  the  tail  is  not  so  much  expanded  or  so  much 
upraised  as  in  even  second-rate  European  Fantails.  The  bird 
shakes  its  neck  like  our  Fantails.  It  had  a  well-developed  oil- 
gland.  Fantails  were  known  in  India,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see, 
before  the  year  1600;  and  we  may  suspect  that  in  the  Java  Fan- 
tail  we  see  the  breed  in  its  earlier  and  less  improved  condition. 

Race  VI. — Turbit  and  Owl.     (Moventauben ;  pigeons  a 

cravate.) 

Feathers  divergent  along  the  front  of  the  nech  and  breast; 
heah  very  short,  vertically  rather  thick;  oesophagus  somewhat 
enlarged. 

Turbits  and  Owls  differ  from  each  other  slightly  in  the  shape  of 
the  head;  the  former  have  a  crest,  and  the  beak  is  differently 
curved;  but  they  may  be  here  conveniently  grouped  together. 
These  pretty  birds,  some  of  which  are  very  small,  can  be  recognised 
at  once  by  the  feathers  irregularly  diverging,  like  a  frill,  along  the 

are  destitute  of  an  oil-gland,  have  ^*  See    the    two    excellent    edi- 

an  unusual   number  of  tail-feath-  tions    published    by     Mr,     J.     M. 

ers,   namely  sixteen,   and  in  this  Eaton  in  1852  and  1858,   entitled 

respect  resemble  Fantails.  *  A  Treatise  on  Fancy  Pigeons.' 


it 


Chap.  V 


DESCRIPTION  OF   BREEDS. 


153 


front  of  the  neck,  in  the  same  manner,  but  in  a  less  degree,  as 
along  the  back  of  the  neck  in  the  Jacobin,     They  have  the  remark- 


able  habit  of  continually  and  momentarily  inOating  the  upper  part 
of  the  oesophagus,  which  causes  a  movement  in  the  frill.     ^^  hen 


15J:  DOMESTIC   PiaEOXS.  Chap.  V. 

the  oesophagus  of  a  dead  bird  is  inflated,  it  is  seen  to  be  larger  than 
in  other  breeds,  and  not  so  distinctly  separated  from  the  crop. 
The  Pouter  inflates  both  its  true  crop  and  oesophagus;  the  Turbit 
inflates  in  a  much  less  degree  the  oesophagus  alone.  The  beak  of 
the  Turbit  is  very  short,  being  .28  of  an  inch  shorter  than  that  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  proi^ortionally  with  the  size  of  their  bodies;  and 
in  some  owls  brought  by  Mr.  E.  Vernon  Harcourt  from  Tunis,  it 
was  even  shorter.  The  beak  is  vertically  thicker,  and  perhaps  a 
little  broader,  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  rock-pigeon. 

Race   VII. — Tumblers.      (Tiimmler,    or   Burzeltauben ;    cul- 

butants.) 

During  flight,  tumble  backwards;  body  generally  small; 
beak  generally  short,  sometimes  excessively  short  and  conical. 

This  race  may  be  divided  into  fotir  sub-races,  namely,  Persian, 
Lotan,  Common,  and  short-faced  Tumblers.  These  sub-races  in- 
clude manv  varieties  which  breed  true.  I  have  examined  eight 
skeletons  of  various  kinds  of  Tumblers:  excepting  in  one  imperfect 
and  doubtful  specimen,  the  ribs  are  only  seven  in  number,  whereas 
the  rock-pigeon  has  eight  ribs. 

Suh-race  I.  Persian  Tiinihlcrs. — I  received  a  pair  direct  from 
Persia,  from  the  Hon.  C.  Murray.  They  are  rather  smaller  birds 
than  the  wild  rock-pigeon,  about  the  size  of  the  common  dovecot 
pigeon,  white  and  mottled,  slightly  feathered  on  the  feet,  with  the, 
beak  just  perceptibly  shorter  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  H.  M.  Con- 
sul, Mr.  Keith  Abbott,  informs  me  that  the  difference  in  the  length 
of  beak  is  so  slight,  that  only  practised  Persian  fanciers  can  distin- 
guish these  Tumblers  from  the  common  pigeon  of  the  country.  He 
informs  me  that  they  fly  in  flocks  high  up  in  the  air  and  tumble 
well.  Some  of  them  occasionally  appear  to  become  giddy  and 
tumble  to  the  ground,  in  which  respect  they  resemble  some  of  our 
Tumblers. 

Siih-race  II.  Lotaji,  or  Lowtini:  Indian  Grofind  Ttnnhlers. — 
These  birds  present  one  of  the  most  remarkable  inherited  habits  or 
instincts  ever  recorded.  The  specimens  sent  to  me  from  Madras 
by  Sir  W.  Elliot  are  white,  slightly  feathered  on  the  feet,  with 
the  feathers  on  the  head  reversed :  and  they  are  rather  smaller 
than  the  rock  or  dovecot  pigeon.  The  beak  is  proportionally  only 
slightly  shorter  and  rather  thinner  than  in  the  rock -pigeon.  These 
birds  when  gently  shaken  and  placed  on  the  ground  immediately 
begin  tumbling  head  over  heels,  and  they  continue  thus  to  tumble 
until  taken  up  and  soothed, — the  ceremony  being  generally  to 
blow  in  their  faces,  as  in  recoA^ering  a  person  from  a  state  of  hyp- 
notism or  mesmerism.  It  is  asserted  that  they  will  continue  to 
roll  over  till  they  die,  if  not  taken  up.  There  is  abundant  evi- 
dence with  respect  to  these  remarkable  peculiarities;  but  what 
makes  the  case  the  more  worthy  of  attention  is,  that  the  habit 
has  been  inherited  since  before  the  vear  1600,  for  the  breed  is  dis-  . 


Chap.  V.  DESCRTPTIOX  OF  BREEDS.  155 

tinctly  described  in  the  '  Ayeen  Akberv.' ''  Mr.  Evans  kept  a  pair 
in  London,  imported  by  Captain  \'ione;  and  lie  a.ssiires  me  that 
he  has  seen  them  tumble  in  the  air,  as  well  as  in  the  manner 
above  described  on  the  ground.  Sir  W.  Elliot,  however,  writes  to 
nie  from  Madras,  that  he  is  informed  that  they  tuiiil)le  exclusively 
on  the  ground,  or  at  a  very  small  height  above  it.  lie  also  men- 
tions birds  of  another  sub-variety,  called  the  Kalmi  Lotan,  which 
begin  to  roll  over  if  only  touched  on  the  neck  with  a  rod  or  wand. 
,Suh-race  III.  Coiiiiiioii  Emjlhh  Tiiiiil)lrrs.~T\\vsi>  birds  have 
exactly  the  same  habits  as  the  Persian  Tundjler,  but  tumble  better. 
The  English  bird  is  rather  smaller  than  the  Persian,  and  the  beak 
is  plainly  shorter.  Compared  with  the  rock-pigeon,  and  propor- 
tionally with  the  size  of  body,  the  beak  is  from  .1')  to  ncarlv  .2  of 
an  inch  shorter,  but  it  is  not  thinner.  There  are  several  vaiieties. 
of  the  common  Tumbler,  namely,  Baldheads,  Beards,  and  Dutch 
Rollers.  I  have  kept  tlie  latter  alive;  they  have  diirerently  shaped 
heads,  longer  necks,  and  are  feather-footed.  They  tumble  to  an 
extraordinary  degree;  as  Mr.  Brent  remarks,^''  "Every  few  seconds 
over  they  go;  one,  two,  or  three  summersaults  at  a  time.  Here  and 
there  a  bird  gives  a  very  quick  and  rapid  spin,  revolving  like  a 
wheel,  though  they  sometimes  lose  their  balance,  and  make  a 
rather  ungraceful  fall,  in  which  they  occasionally  hurt  themselves, 
by  striking  some  object."  Erom  Madras  I  have  received  several 
specimens  of  the  common  Tumbler  of  India,  differing  slightly  from 
each  other  in  the  length  of  their  beaks.  Mr.  Brent  sent  me  a  dead 
specimen  of  a  "  House-tumbler,"  "  which  is  a  Scotch  variety,  not 
differing  in  general  appearance  and  form  of  beak  from  the  common 
Tumbler.  IMr.  Brent  states  that  these  birds  generally  beiiin  to 
tumble  "  almost  as  soon  as  they  can  well  iiy;  at  three  months  old 
they  tumble  well,  but  still  fly  strong;  at  five  or  six  months  they 
tumble  excessively;  and  in  the  second  year  they  mostly  iih-e  up 
flying,  on  account  of  their  tumbling  so  much  and  so  close  to  the 
ground.  Some  fly  round  with  the  flock,  throwing  a  clean  summer- 
sault every  few^  yards,  till  they  are  obliged  to  settle  from  giddiness 
and  exhaustion.  These  are  called  Air  Tumblers,  and  they  com- 
monly throw  from  twenty  to  thirty  summersaults  in  a  minute,, 
each  clear  and  clean.  I  have  one  red  cock  that  I  have  on  two  or 
three  occasions  timed  by  my  watch,  and  counted  forty  summer- 
saults in  the  minute.  Others  tumble  differently.  At  flrst  they 
throw  a  single  summersault,  then  it  is  double,  till  it  becomes  a. 
continuous  roll,  which  puts  an  end  to  flying,  for  if  they  fly  a  few 
yards  over  they  go,  and  roll  till  they  reach  the  ground.     Thus  I 

i^EnijUsh    translation,     by     F.  3847,    p.    IM:    lie    says    that    they 

Glarlwin.  4th  edition,  vol.  i.     Tlie  "  may  bo  seen  at  any  of  the  Cal- 

habit    of    the    Lotan    is    also    do-  cutta  bird-dealers.' 
scribed    in    the    Persian    treatise  ^''  '  .Tonrnal      of      Horticulture, 

before  alluded  to,  pul)lislied  about  Oct.  22.  ]S(il.  p.  7(>. 
100   vears   ago:    at    this   date   the  it, c?,.,.  the  account  of  the  House- 

Lotans  were  generallv  white  and  tumblers  l<ept  at  (TlasL^uw.  ni  tiie 

crested  as  at  present."     Mr.  Blvth  '  rottatro  Cardener.     1S..S.   p.  >.s.). 

describes   these   l)irds   in    '  Aunnls  Also  Mr.   Breut's  pai>er.      Journal 

and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  xiv.,  of  Horticulture,'  ISC.l.   p.    «o. 


256  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

had  one  kill  herself,  and  another  broke  his  leg.  Many  of  them  turn 
over  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground,  and  will  tumble  two  or 
three  times  in  flying  across  their  loft.  These  are  called  House- 
tumblers,  from  tumbling  in  the  house.  The  act  of  tumbling  seems 
to  be  one  over  which  they  have  no  control,  an  involuntary  move- 
ment which  they  seem  to  try  to  prevent.  I  have  seen  a  bird 
sometimes  in  his  struggles  fly  a  yard  or  two  straight  upwards,  the 
impulse  forcing  him  backwards  while  he  struggles  to  go  for- 
wards. If  suddenly  startled,  or  in  a  strange  place,  they  seem  less 
able  to  fly  than  if  quiet  in  their  accustomed  loft."  These  House- 
tumblers  difi'er  from  the  Lotan  or  Ground  Tumbler  of  India,  in 
not  requiring  to  be  shaken  in  order  to  begin  tumbling.  The  breed 
has  probably  been  formed  merely  by  selecting  the  best  common 
Tumblers,  though  it  is  possible  that  they  may  have  been  crossed 
at  some  former  period  with  Lotans. 

Sub-race  IT.  Short-fact'd  Tumblers. — These  are  marvellous 
birds,  and  are  the  glory  and  pride  of  many  fanciers.  In  their  ex- 
tremely short,  sharp,  and  conical  beaks,  with  the  skin  over  the 
nostrils  but  little  developed,  they  almost  depart  from  the  type  of 
the  Columbidse.  Their  heads  are  nearly  globular  and  upright  in 
front,  so  that  some  fanciers  say  ^^  "  the  head  should  resemble  a 
cherry  with  a  barley-corn  stuck  in  it."  These  are  the  smallest 
kind  of  pigeons.  Mr.  Esquilant  possessed  a  blue  Baldhead,  two 
years  old,  which  when  alive  weighed,  before  feeding-time,  only  6 
oz.  5  drs. ;  two  others,  each  weighed  7  oz.  We  have  seen  that  a 
wild  rock-pigeon  weighed  14  oz.  2  drs.,  and  a  Runt  34  oz.  4  drs. 
Short-faced  Tumblers  have  a  remarkably  erect  carriage,  with  promi- 
nent breasts,  drooping  wings,  and  very  small  feet.  The  length 
of  the  beak  from  the  tip  to  the  feathered  base  was  in  one  good 
bird  only  .4  of  an  inch;  in  a  wild  rock-pigeon  it  was  exactly 
double  this  length,  xls  these  Tumblers  have  shorter  bodies  than  the 
Avild  rock-pigeon,  they  ought  of  course  to  have  shorter  beaks;  but 
proportionally  with  the  size  of  the  body,  the  beak  is  .28  of  an 
inch  too  short.  So,  again,  the  feet  of  this  bird  were  actually  .45 
shorter,  and  proportionally  .21  of  an  inch  shorter,  than  the  feet  of 
the  rock-pigeon.  The  middle  toe  has  only  twelve  or  thirteen,  in- 
stead of  fourteen  or  fifteen  scutellse.  The  primary  wing-feathers 
are  not  rarely  nine  instead  of  ten  in  number.  The  improved  short- 
faced  Tumblers  have  almost  lost  the  power  of  tumbling;  but  there 
are  several  authentic  accounts  of  their  occasionally  tumbling. 
There  are  several  sub-varieties,  such  as  Baldheads,  Beards,  Mot- 
tles, and  Almonds;  the  latter  are  remarkable  from  not  acquiring 
their  perfectly-coloured  plumage  until  they  have  moulted  three 
or  four  times.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  most  of  these 
sub-varieties,  some  of  which  breed  truly,  have  arisen  since  the 
publication  of  Moore's  treatise  in  1735." 

Finally,  in  regard  to  the  whole  group  of  Tumblers,  it  is  im- 
possible to   conceive   a  more   perfect  gradation   than   I   have  now 

"  J.    M.    Eaton's   '  Treatise  on  ^^  J.  M.  Eaton's  Treatise,  edit. 

Pigeons,'  1852,  p.  9.  1858,  p.  76. 


ti 


Chap.  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


157 


158  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  V, 

lying  before  me,  from  the  rock-pigeon,  through  Persian,  Lotan, 
and  common  Tumblers,  up  to  the  marvellous  short-faced  birds; 
which  latter,  no  ornithologist,  judging  from  mere  external  struc- 
ture, would  place  in  the  same  genus  with  the  rock-pigeon.  The 
dillerences  between  the  successive  steps  in  this  series  are  not 
greater  than  those  which  may  be  observed  between  common  dove- 
cot-pigeons  {C.  livia)   brought  from  different  countries. 

Race  VIII. — Indian  Frill-back. 
Beah  very  short;  feathers  reversed. 

A  specimen  of  this  bird,  in  spirits,  was  sent  to  me  from  Madras 
by  Sir  W.  Elliot.  It  is  wholly  different  from  the  Frill-back  often 
exhibited  in  England.  It  is  a  smallish  bird,  about  the  size  of  the 
common  Tumbler,  but  has  a  beak  in  all  its  proportions  like  our 
short-faced  Tumblers.  The  beak,  measured  from  the  tip  to  the 
feathered  base,  was  onlv  .46  of  an  inch  in  lensfth.  The  feathers 
over  the  whole  body  are  reversed  or  curl  backwards.  Had  this 
bird  occurred  in  Europe,  I  should  have  thought  it  only  a  mon- 
strous variety  of  our  improved  Tumbler:  but  as  short-faced  Tum- 
blers are  not  known  in  India,  I  think  it  must  rank  as  a  distinct 
breed.  Probably  this  is  the  breed  seen  by  Hasselquist  in  1757  at 
Cairo,  and  said  to  have  been  imported  from  India. 

Hace  IX. — Jacobin.     (Zopf-  or  Perriickentaube ;  nonnain.) 

Feathers  of  the  neck  forming  a  hood;  wings  and  tail  long; 
heaJc  moderately  short. 

This  pigeon  can  at  once  be  recognized  by  its  hood,  almost  en- 
closing the  head  and  meeting  in  front  of  the  neck.  The  hood 
seems  to  be  merely  an  exaggeration  of  the  crest  of  reversed  feathers 
on  the  back  of  the  head,  which  is  common  to  many  sub-varieties, 
and  which  in  the  Latztaube  -"  is  in  a  nearly  intermediate  state  be- 
tween a  hood  and  a  crest.  The  feathers  of  the  hood  are  elongated. 
Both  the  wings  and  tail  are  likewise  much  elongated;  thus  the 
folded  wing  of  the  Jacobin,  though  a  somewhat  smaller  bird,  is 
fully  IJ  inch  longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  Taking  the  length 
of  the  body  without  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  the 
folded  wing  proportionally  with  the  wings  of  the  rock-pigeon,  is 
2-1  inches  too  long,  and  the  two  wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  51  inches 
too  long.  In  disposition  this  bird  is  singularly  quiet,  seldom  fly- 
ing or  moving  about,  as  l>echstein  and  Riedel  have  likewise  re- 
marked in  Germany.-^  The  latter  author  also  notices  the  length 
of  the  wings  and  tail.  The  beak  is  nearly  .2  of  an  inch  shorter 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body  than  in  the  rock-pigeon;  but 
the  internal  gape  of  the  mouth  is  considerably  wider. 

=0  Neumeister,  '  Taubenzucht,'  1S24.  s.  26.  Ber>hstein.  '  Nntnr- 
Tab.  4.  tiff.  i.  gesehichte     Deutschlands,'     Band 

21  Riedel,     '  Die    Taubenzucht,'        iv.  s.  36,  1795. 


C ^^^..^.JPTION   OF  BREEDS.  ;[59 


Group  IV. 

The  birds  of  this  group  may  be  characterised  by  their  re- 
semblance in  all  important  points  of  structure,  especially 
in  the  beak,  to  the  rock-pigeon.  The  Trumpeter  forms  the 
only  well-marked  race.  Cf  the  numerous  other  sub-races  and 
varieties  I  shall  specify  only  a  few  of  the  most  distinct,  which 
I  have  myself  seen  and  kept  alive. 

."Race  X. — Trumpeter.     ( Trommeltaube ;  pigeon  tambour, 

glouglou.) 

A  tuft  of  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  heak  curling  forward; 
feet  much  feathered;  voice  very  peculiar;  size  exceeding  that 
of  the  rock-pigeon. 

This  is  a  well-marked  breed,  with  a  peculiar  voice,  wholly  un- 
like that  of  any  other  pigeon.  The  coo  is  rapidly  repeated,  and 
is  continued  for  several  minutes;  hence  their  name  of  Trumpetos. 
They  are  also  characterised  by  a  tuft  of  elongated  feathers,  which 
curls  forward  over  the  base  of  the  beak,  and  which  is  possessed 
by  no  other  breed.  Their  feet  are  so  heavily  feathered,  that  they 
almost  appear  like  little  wings.  They  are  larger  birds  than  the 
rock-pigeon,  but  their  beak  is  of  very  nearly  the  same  propor- 
tional size.  Their  feet  are  rather  small.  This  breed  was  perfectly 
characterised  in  ]\Ioore's  time  in  1735.  Mr.  Brent  says  that  two 
varieties  exist,  which  differ  in  size. 

Race  XL — Scarcely  differing  in  structure  from  the  wild 

Columbia  livia. 

Suh-race  I.  Laugliers.  Size  less  than  the  Roek-pigcou ;  roice 
very  peculiar. — As  this  bird  agrees  in  nearly  all  its  proportions 
with  the  rock-pigeon,  though  of  smaller  size,  I  should  not  have 
thought  it  worthy  of  mention,  had  it  not  been  for  its  peculiar 
voice — a  character  supposed  seldom  to  vary  with  birds.  Altlu)iigh 
the  voice  of  the  Laugher  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  Trnai- 
peter,  yet  one  of  my  Trumpeters  used  to  utter  a  single  note  like 
that  of  the  Laughter.  I  have  kept  two  varieties  of  Laughters, 
which  differed  only  in  one  variety,  being  lurn-crowned;  tlie 
smooth-headed  kind,  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of 
Mr.  Brent,  besides  its  peculiar  note,  used  to  coo  in  a  singiihir  and 
pleasing  manner,  which,  independently,  struck  both  ]Mi-.  lircnt  and 
myself  as  resembling  that  of  the  turtle-dove.  Both  varieties  come 
from  Arabia.  This  breed  was  known  by  Moore  in  173;").  A  pigeon 
Avhich  seems  to  sav  Yak-roo  is  mentioned  in  KiOO  in  the  '  Avoeu 
Akbery,'  and  is  probably  the  same  breed.     Sir  W.  Elliot  has  also 


160  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

sent  me  from  Madras  a  pigeon  called  Yahui,  said  to  have  come 
from  Mecca,  which  does  not  difier  in  appearance  from  the  Laugher; 
it  has  "  a  deep  melancholy  voice,  like  Yahu,  often  repeated." 
Yahu,  yahu,  means  Oh  God,  oh  God;  and  Sayzid  Mohammed  Mu- 
sari,  in  the  treatise  written  about  100  years  ago,  says  that  these 
birds  "  are  not  flown,  because  they  repeat  the  name  of  the  most 
high  God."  Mr.  Keith  Abbott,  however,  informs  me  that  the 
common  pigeon  is  called  Yahoo  in  Persia. 

Sub-race  II.  Common  Frill-back  (die  Strupptaube).  Beak 
rather  longer  than  hi  the  rock-pigeon;  feathers  reversed. — This  is 
a  considerably  larger  bird  than  the  rock-pigeon,  and  with  the  beak, 
proportionally  with  the  size  of  body,  a  little  (viz.  by  .04  of  an 
inch)  longer.  The  feathers,  especially  on  the  wing-coverts,  have 
their  points  curled  upwards  or  backwards. 

Sub-race  III.  Xuns  (Pigeons  coquilles). — These  elegant  birds 
are  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon.  The  beak  is  actually  1.7,  and 
proportionally  with  the  size  of  the  body  .1  of  an  inch  shorter  than 
in  the  rock-pigeons,  although  of  the  same  thickness.  In  young 
birds  the  scutellse  on  the  tarsi  and  toes  are  generalh^  of  a  leaden- 
black  colour;  and  this  is  a  remarkable  character  (though  ob- 
served in  a  lesser  degree  in  some  other  breeds),  as  the  colour  of 
the  legs  in  the  adult  state  is  subject  to  very  little  variation  in 
any  breed.  I  have  on  two  or  three  occasions  counted  thirteen  or 
fourteen  feathers  in  the  tail;  this  likewise  occurs  in  the  barely 
distinct  breed  called  Helmets.  Nvms  are  symmetrically  coloured, 
with  the  head,  primary  wing-feathers,  tail,  and  tail-coverts  of  the 
same  colour,  namely,  black  or  red,  and  with  the  rest  of  the  body 
white.  This  breed  has  retained  the  same  character  since  Aldro- 
vandi  wrote  in  1600.  I  have  received  from  Madras  almost  simi- 
larly coloured  birds. 

Sub-race  IV.  Spots  (die  Blasstauben;  pigeons  heutes). — 
These  birds  are  a  very  little  larger  than  the  rock-pigeon,  with  the 
beak  a  trace  smaller  in  all  its  dimensions,  and  with  the  feet  de- 
cidedly smaller.  They  are  symmetrically  coloured,  with  a  spot 
on  the  forehead,  with  the  tail  and  tail-coverts  of  tlie  same  colour, 
the  rest  of  the  boy  being  white.  This  breed  existed  in  1676;  -- 
and  in  1735  Moore  remarks  that  they  breed  truly,  as  is  the  case 
at  the  present  day. 

Sub-race  T.  Sicallows. — These  birds,  as  measured  from  tip  to 
tip  of  wing,  or  from  the  end  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail, 
exceed  in  size  the  rock-pigeon;  but  their  bodies  are  much  less 
bulky;  their  feet  and  legs  are  likewise  smaller.  The  beak  is  of 
about  the  same  length,  but  rather  slighter.  Altogether  their  gen- 
eral appearance  is  considerably  different  from  that  of  the  rock- 
pigeon.  Their  heads  and  wings  are  of  the  same  colour,  the  rest 
of  the  body  being  white.  Their  flight  is  said  to  be  peculiar.  This 
seems  to  be  a  modern  breed,  which,  however,  originated  before  the 
year  1795  in  Germany,  for  it  is  described  by  Bechstein. 

"  Willughby's  '  Ornithology,'  edited  by  Ray. 


Chap.  V.  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  ICl 

Besides  the  several  breeds  now  described,  three  or  four  otlier 
very  distinct  kinds  existed  hitely,  or  perliaps  still  exist,   in   Ger- 
many and  France.    Firstly,  the  Karnieliten,  or  carnie  pigeon,  which 
I  have  not  seen;   it  is  described  as  of  small  size,  with  very  short 
legs,  and  with  an  extremely  short  beak.     Secondly,  the  Ffnnikin, 
which  is  now  extinct  in  England.     It  had,  according  to  Moore's'-' 
treatise,  published  in  1735,  a  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  liinder  part  of 
the   head,   which   ran   down  its   back   not  unlike   a   horse's   mane. 
"  When  it  is  salacious  it  rises  over  the  hen  and  turns  nmnd  three 
or  four  times,  flapping  its  wings,  then  reverses  and  turns  as  many 
times  the  other  way."     The  Turner,  on  the  other  hand,  when  it 
"  plays  to  the  female,   turns  only  one  way."     Whether  these  ex- 
traordinary statements  may  be  trusted  1  know  not;   but  the  in- 
heritance of  any  habit  may  be  believed,  after  what  we  have  seen 
with  respect  to  the  Ground-tumbler  of  India.     ]\ni.   Boitard  and 
Corbie  describe  a  pigeon'-*  which  has  the  singular  habit  of  sailing 
for  a  considerable  time  through  the  air,  without  lla})i)ing  its  wings, 
like  a  bird  of  prey.    The  confusion  is  inextricable,  from  the  time  of 
Aldrovandi  in  1000  to  the  present  day,  in  the  accounts  published 
of  the  Draijers,  Smiters,  Finnikins,  Turners,  Claquers,  (kc,  which 
are  all  remarkable  from  their  manner  of  fliglit.     ]\Ir.  Brent  inloniis 
me  that  he  has  seen  one  of  these  breeds  in  Germany  with  its  winj;- 
feathers  injured  from  having  been  so   often  struck   together,  but 
he  did  not  see  it  flying.     An  old  stufled  specimen  of  a  Finnikin  in 
the  British  Museum  presents  no  well-marked  character.     Thirdly, 
a  singular  pigeon  with  a  forked  tail  is  mentioned  in  some  treat- 
ises:  and   as    Bechstein -^   briefly   describes    and    figures    this    bird, 
with  a  tail  "  having  completely  the  structure  of  that  of  the  house- 
swallow,"  it  must  once  hase  existed,  for  Bechstein  was  far  too  good 
a   naturalist   to    have    confounded    any   distinct    species    with    tlie 
domestic  pigeon.     Lastly,  an  extraordinary  pigeon  imported  from 
Belgium  has  lately  been  exhibited  at  the  Philoperisteron  Society 
in  London,-'^  which  "  conjoins  the  colour  of  an  archangel  with  the 
head  of  an  owl  or  barb,  its  most  striking  peculiarity  being  the 
extraordinary    length    of    the    tail    and    wing-feathers,    the    latter 
crossing  beyond  the  tail,  and  giving  to  the  bird   the  appearance 
of  a  gigantic  swift  (Cypselus),  or  long- winged  hawk."     Mr.  Teget- 
meier  informs  me  that  this  bird  weighed  only   10  ounces,  but  in 
length  was   loi   inches  from   tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail,  and  32\ 
inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing;  now  the  wild  rock-pigeon  weighs 
14J  ounces,  and  measures  from  tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail  15  inches, 
and  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing  only  2G|  inches. 

I  have  now  described  all  the  domestic  pigeons  known  to 
me,  and  have  added  a  few  others  on  reliable  authority.     I 

23  J.    M.    Eatoii's   edition   (1S58)        tc     Deutschlands,"     Baud     iv.     s. 

'^*  IMgeon  panu  plongenr.    '  Les  ''-"Mr.  W.  B.  Tegetmeler.  'Jour- 

Pigeons.'  &c.,  p.  16.-).  nal    of    Horticulture,'    Jan.    20tU. 

"  Bechstein's    *  Naturgeschich-       1863,  p.  58. 


1G2  DOMESTIC   PIGEOXS.  Chap.  V. 

Jaave  classed  them  under  four  Groups,  in  order  to  mark  their 
affinities  and  degrees  of  difference;  but  the  third  group  is 
artificial.  The  kinds  examined  by  me  form  eleven  races, 
■which  include  several  sub-races ;  and  even  these  latter  present 
differences  that  would  certainly  have  been  thought  of  specitic 
value  if  observed  in  a  state  of  nature.  The  sub-races  like- 
wise include  many  strictly  inherited  varieties;  so  that  alto- 
gether there  must  exist,  as  previously  remarked,  above  150 
kinds  which  can  be  distinguished,  though  generally  by  char- 
acters of  extremely  slight  importance.  Many  of  the  genera 
of  the  Columbidse,  admitted  by  ornithologists,  do  not  differ 
in  any  great  degree  from  each  other;  taking  this  into  con- 
sideration, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  several  of  the  most 
strongly  characterized  domestic  forms,  if  found  wild,  would 
have  been  placed  in  at  least  five  new  genera.  Thus  a  new 
genus  would  have  been  formed  for  the  reception  of  the  im- 
proved English  Pouter :  a  second  genus  for  Carriers  and 
Runts;  and  this  would  have  been  a  wdde  or  comprehensive 
genus,  for  it  would  have  admitted  common  Spanish  Runts 
without  any  Avattle,  short-beaked  Runts  like  the  Tronfo,  and 
the  improved  English  Carrier :  a  third  genus  would  have 
been  formed  for  the  Barb :  a  fourth  for  the  Fantail :  and 
lastly,  a  fifth  for  the  short-beaked,  not-wattled  pigeons,  such 
as  Turbits  and  short-faced  Tumblers.  The  remaining  do- 
mestic forms  might  have  been  included,  in  the  same  genus 
with  the  wild  rock-pigeon. 

Individual  Yariability;  variations  of  a  reinarJcahle   nature. 

The  differences  which  we  have  as  yet  considered  are  char- 
acteristic of  distinct  breeds;  but  there  are  other  differences, 
either  confined  to  individual  birds,  or  often  observed  in  cer- 
tain breeds  but  not  characteristic  of  them.  These  indi- 
vidual differences  are  of  importance,  as  they  might  in  most 
cases  be  secured  and  accumulated  by  man's  power  of  selec- 
tion and  thus  an  existing  breed  might  be  greatly  modified  or 
a  new  one  formed.  Fanciers  notice  and  select  only  those 
slight  differences  which  are  externally  visible;  but  the  whole 
organisation  is  so  tied  together  by  correlation  of  growth, 
that  a  change  in  one  part  is  frequently  accompanied  by  other 


Chap.  V.  INDIVIDUAL  VARIABILITY.  163 

changes.  For  our  purpose,  modifications  of  all  kinds  are 
equally  important,  and  if  affecting  a  part  which  does  not 
commonly  vary,  are  of  more  importance  than  a  modification 
in  some  conspicuous  part.  At  the  present  day  any  visible 
deviation  of  character  in  a  well-established  breed  is  rejected 
as  a  blemish;  but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  at  an  early 
period,  before  well-marked  breeds  had  been  formed,  such 
deviations  would  have  been  rejected;  on  the  contrary,  they 
would  have  been  eagerly  preserved  as  presenting  a  novelty, 
and  would  then  have  been  slowly  augmented,  as  we  shall 
hereafter  more  clearly  see,  by  the  process  of  unconscious  se- 
lection. 

I  have  made  numerous  measurements  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  body  in  the  several  breeds,  and  have  hardly  ever  found  them 
quite  the  same  in  birds  of  the  same  breed, — the  differences  bein^ 
greater  than  we  commonly  meet  with  in  wild  species  within  the 
same  district.  To  begin  with  the  primary  feathers  of  the  wing  and 
tail;  but  I  must  first  mention,  as  some  readers  may  not  be  aware 
of  the  fact,  that  the  number  of  the  primary  wing  and  tail-feathers 
in  wild  birds  is  generally  constant,  and  characterises,  not  only 
whole  genera,  but  even  whole  families.  When  the  tail-feathers 
are  unusually  numerous,  as  for  instance  in  the  swan,  they  are  apt 
to  be  variable  in  number;  but  this  does  not  apply  to  the  several 
species  and  genera  of  the  Columbidse,  which  never  (as  far  as  I  can 
hear)  have  less  than  twelve  or  more  than  sixteen  tail-feathers; 
and  these  numbers  characterise,  with  rare  exception,  whole  sub- 
families.-^ The  wild  rock-pigeon  has  tAvelve  tail-feathers.  With 
Fantails,  as  we  have  seen,  the  number  varies  from  fourteen 
to  forty-two.  In  two  young  birds  in  the  same  nest  I  counted 
twenty-two  and  twenty-seven  feathers.  Pouters  are  very  liable 
to  have  additional  tail-feathers,  and  I  have  seen  on  several  occa- 
sions fourteen  or  fifteen  in  my  own  birds.  ]\Ir.  Bult  had  a  speci- 
men, examined  by  Mr.  Yarrell,  with  seventeen  tail-feathers.  I  had 
a  Nun  with  thirteen,  and  another  with  fourteen  tail-feathers: 
and  in  a  Helmet,  a  breed  barely  distinguishable  from  the  Nun,  I 
have  counted  fifteen,  and  have  heard  of  other  such  instances. 
On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Brent  possessed  a  Dragon,  which  during 
its  whole  life  never  had  more  than  ten  tail-feathers;  and  one  of 
my  Dragons,  descended  from  Mr.  Brent's,  had  only  eleven.  I  have 
seen  a  Baldhead  Tumbler  with  only  ten;  and  ]NIr.  Brent  had  an 
Air-Tumbler   with   the   same   number,  but   another   with   fourteen 

-^  '  Coup-d'a?il    sur    I'Orde    dos  are   nearly    nllicMl    to    ouch    otlxT. 

Pigeons,'     par    C.     L.     Ponapavte  one    should     have    fonrtopn    tail- 

CComptes  Rendus '),  1S."4-.").    Mr.  feathers,     while    the    other,     the 

Blyth.   in   '  Annals  of  Nat.   Hist.,'  passensrer  pigeon  of  North   Anior- 

vol.  xix.,  1S47,  p.  41,  monMons,  as  ica,  should  possess  hut  the  usual 

a  very  sin.^-ular  fact,  "  that  of  the  number— twelve." 
two  species  of  Ectopistes,  which 

12 


164  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

tail-feathers.  Two  of  these  latter  Tumblers,  bred  by  Mr.  Brent, 
were  remarkable, — one  from  having  the  two  central  tail-feathers 
a  little  divergent,  and  the  other  from  having  the  t\\o  outer  feathers 
longer  by  three-eightlis  of  an  inch  than  the  others;  so  that  in 
both  cases  the  tail  exhibited  a  tendency,  but  in  dilferent  ways,  to 
become  forked.  And  this  shows  us  how  a  swallow-tailed  breed, 
like  that  described  by  Bechstein,  might  have  been  formed  by  care- 
ful selection. 

With  respect  to  the  primary  wing-feathers,  the  number  in  the 
Columbidae,  so  far  as  I  can  find  out,  is  always  nine  or  ten.  In 
the  rock-pigeon  it  is  ten;  but  I  have  seen  no  less  than  eight  short- 
faced  Tumblers  with  only  nine  primaries,  and  the  occurrence  of 
this  number  has  been  noticed  by  fanciers,  owing  to  ten  primaries 
of  a  white  colour  being  one  of  the  points  in  Short-faced  Baldhead- 
Tumblers.  Mr.  Brent,  however,  had  an  Air-Tumbler  (not  short- 
faced)  which  had  in  both  ^^'ings  eleven  primaries.  ]\Ir,  Corker,  the 
eminent  breeder  of  prize  Carriers,  assures  me  that  some  of  his  birds 
had  eleven  primaries  in  both  wings.  I  have  seen  eleven  in  one 
wing  in  two  Pouters.  I  have  been  assured  by  three  fanciers  that 
they  have  seen  twelve  in  Scanderoons;  but  as  Xeumeister  asserts 
that  in  the  allied  Florence  Runt  the  middle  Hight-feather  is  often 
double,  the  number  twelve  may  have  been  caused  by  two  of  the  ten 
primaries  having  each  two  shafts  to  a  single  feather.  The  sec- 
ondary wing-feathers  are  difhcult  to  count,  but  the  number  seems 
to  vary  from  twelve  to  fifteen.  The  length  of  the  wing  and  tail 
relatively  to  the  body,  and  of  the  wings  to  the  tail,  certainly 
varies;  I  have  especially  noticed  this  in  Jacobins.  In  Mr.  Bult's 
magnificent  collection  of  Pouters,  the  wings  and  tail  varied  greatly 
in  length;  and  were  sometimes  so  much  elongated  that  the  birds 
could  hardly  play  upright.  In  the  relative  length  of  the  few  first 
primaries  I  have  observed  only  a  slight  degree  of  variability. 
Mr.  Brent  informs  me  that  he  has  observed  the  shape  of  the  first 
feather  to  vary  very  slightly.  But  the  variation  in  these  latter 
points  is  extremely  slight  compared  with  the  differences  which 
may  be  observed  in  the  natural  species  of  the  Columbidoe. 

In  the  beak  I  have  seen  very  considerable  differences  in  birds 
of  the  same  breed,  as  in  carefully  bred  Jacobins  and  Trumpeters, 
In  Carriers  there  is  often  a  conspicuous  difference  in  the  degree 
of  attenuation  and  curvature  of  the  beak.  So  it  is  indeed  in  many 
breeds:  thus  I  had  two  strains  of  black  Barbs,  Avhich  evidently 
differed  in  the  curvature  of  the  upper  mandible.  In  width  of 
mouth  I  have  found  a  great  difference  in  two  Swallows.  In  Fan- 
tails  of  first-rate  merit  I  have  seen  some  birds  with  much  longer 
and  thinner  necks  than  in  others.  Other  analogous  facts  could 
month  I  have  found  a  great  dift'erence  in  two  Swallows.  In  Fan- 
tails  (with  the  exception  of  the  sub-race  from  Java),  and,  I  may 
add,  so  hereditary  is  this  tendency  to  abortion,  that  some,  al- 
though not  all,  of  the  mongrels  which  I  reared  fi-om  the  Fantail 
and  Pouter  had  no  oil-gland;  in  one  Swallow  out  of  many  which 
I  have  examined,  and  in  two  Nuns,  there  was  no  oil-gland. 


Chap.  V.  SINGULAR  VARIATIONS.  1G5 

The  number  of  the  sciitellae  on  the  toes  often  varies  in  the  same 
breed,  and  sometimes  even  difiers  on  the  two  feet  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual; the  Shetland  roek-pigeon  has  fifteen  (;n  tlie  middle,  and 
six  on  the  hinder  toe;  whereas  I  have  seen  a  Kimt  with  sixteen 
on  the  middle  and  eight  on  the  hind  toe;  and  a  short-faced  Tum- 
bler with  only  twelve  and  five  on  these  same  toes.  The  rock- 
pigeon  has  no  sensible  amount  of  skin  between  its  toes;  but  I 
possessed  a  Spot  and  a  Nun  with  the  skin  extending  for  a  sjjaee 
of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  fork,  between  tlie  two  inner  toes. 
On  the  other  hand,  as  will  hereafter  be  more  fully  shown,  pigeons 
with  feathered  feet  very  generally  have  tlie  bases  of  their  oulcr 
toes  connected  by  skin.  I  had  a  red  Tumbler,  which  had  a  coo 
unlike  that  of  its  fellows,  approaching  in  tone  to  that  of  the 
Laugher:  this  bird  had  the  habit,  to  a  degree  which  I  never  saw 
equalled  in  any  other  pigeon,  of  often  walking  with  its  wings 
raised  and  arched  in  an  elegant  manner.  I  need  say  notiiing  on 
the  great  variability,  in  almost  every  breed,  in  size  of  body,  in 
colour,  in  the  feathering  of  the  feet,  and  in  the  feathers  on  the 
back  of  the  head  being  reversed.  But  I  may  mention  a  remarkable 
Tumbler  -^  exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  which  had  an  irregular 
crest  of  feathers  on  its  head,  somewhat  like  the  tuft  on  the  head 
of  the  Polish  fowl.  Mr.  Bult  reared  a  hen  Jacobin  with  tlie 
feathers  on  the  thigh  so  long  as  to  reach  the  ground,  and  a  cock 
having,  but  in  a  lesser  degree,  the  same  peculiarity:  from  these  two 
birds  he  bred  others  similarly  characterised,  which  were  exhibited 
at  the  Philoperisteron  Soc.  I  bred  a  mongrel  pigeon  which  had 
fibrous  feathers,  and  the  wing  and  tail-feathers  so  short  and  im- 
perfect that  the  bird  could  not  fly  even  a  foot  in  height. 

There  are  many  singular  and  inherited  peculiarities  in 
the  plumage  of  pigeons :  thus  Almond-Tumblers  do  not  ac- 
quire their  perfect  mottled  feathers  until  they  have  moulted 
three  or  four  times:  the  Kite  Tumbler  is  at  first  brindled 
black  and  red  with  a  barred  appearance,  but  when  "  it  throws 
its  nest  feathers  it  becomes  almost  black,  generally  with  a 
bluish  tail,  and  a  reddish  colour  on  the  inner  webs  of  the 
primary  wing-feathers."  '"*  Neumeister  describes  a  breed  of 
a  black  colour  M^ith  white  bars  on  the  wing  and  a  white  cres- 
cent-shaped mark  on  the  breast;  these  marks  are  generally 
rusty-red  before  the  first  moult,  but  after  the  third  or  fourth 
moult  they  undergo  a  change;  the  wing- feathers  and  the 
crown  of  the  head  likewise  then  become  white  or  grey. 

It  is  an  important  fact,  and  I  believe  there  is  hardly  an 

28  Described  and  figured  in  the  so  •  pje      staarhiilsigo      Tnube. 
'Poultry  Chronicle,'  iii.,  185.5,  82.  Das    Ganze,    &c.,'    s.    21,    tab.    I. 

29  '  The   Pigeon   Book,'   by   Mr.  fig.  4. 
B.  P.  Brent,  1859,  p.  41. 


IQQ  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

exception  to  the  rule,  that  the  especial  characters  for  which 
each  breed  is  valued  are  eminently  variable:  thus,  in  the 
Fantail,  the  number  and  direction  of  the  tail-feathers,  the 
carriage  of  the  body,  and  the  degree  of  trembling  are  all 
highly  variable  points;  in  Pouters,  the  degree  to  which  they 
pout,  and  the  shape  of  their  inflated  crops;  in  the  Carrier, 
the  length,  narrowness,  and  curvature  of  the  beak,  and  the 
amount  of  w^attle;  in  Short-faced  Tumblers,  the  shortness 
of  the  beak,  the  prominence  of  the  forehead,  and  general 
carriage,^'  and  in  the  Almond-Tumbler  the  colour  of  the 
plumage;  in  common  Tumblers,  the  manner  of  tumbling; 
in  the  Barb,  the  breadth  and  shortness  of  the  beak  and  the 
amount  of  eye-wattle ;  in  Eunts,  the  size  of  body ;  in  Turbits 
the  frill;  and  lastly  in  Trumpeters,  the  cooing,  as  well  as 
the  size  of  the  tuft  of  feathers  over  the  nostrils.  These, 
which  are  the  distinctive  and  selected  characters  of  the  several 
breeds,  are  all  eminently  variable. 

There  is  another  interesting  fact  wdth  respect  to  the 
characters  of  the  several  breeds,  namely,  that  they  are  often 
most  strongly  displayed  in  the  male  bird.  In  Carriers,  when 
the  males  and  females  are  exhibited  in  separate  pens,  the 
w^attle  is  plainly  seen  to  be  much  more  developed  in  the 
males,  though  I  have  seen  a  hen  Carrier  belonging  to  Mr. 
Haynes  heavily  wattled.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that, 
in  twenty  Barbs  in  Mr.  P.  H.  Jones's  possession,  the  males 
had  generally  the  largest  eye-wattles;  Mr.  Esquilant  also 
believes  in  this  rule,  but  Mr.  H.  Weir,  a  first-rate  judge,  en- 
tertains some  doubt  on  the  subject.  Male  Pouters  distend 
their  crops  to  a  much  greater  size  than  do  the  females;  I 
have,  however,  seen  a  hen  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Evans 
w^hich  pouted  excellently;  but  this  is  an  unusual  circum- 
stance. Mr.  Harrison  Weir,  a  successful  breeder  of  prize 
Fantails,  informs  me  that  his  male  birds  often  have  a  greater 
number  of  tail-feathers  than  the  females.  Mr.  Eaton  as- 
serts^' that  if  a  cock  and  hen  Tumbler  were  of  equal  merit, 
the  hen  w^ould  be  worth  double  the  money;  and  as  pigeons 
always  pair,  so  that  an  equal  number  of  both  sexes  is  necessary 

31  '  A  Treatise  on  the  Almond-  ^-  '  A  Treatise  on  tlie  Almond- 

Tumliler,'    by  J.   M.   Eaton,   1852,        Tumbler,'   p.   10. 
p.  8,  et  passim. 


Chap.  V. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES. 


167 


for  reproduction,  this  seems  to  show  that  high  merit  is  rarer 
in  the  female  than  in  the  male.  In  the  development  of  the 
frill  in  Turbits,  of  the  hood  in  Jacobins,  of  the  tuft  in  Trum- 
peters, of  tumbling  in  Tumblers,  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween the  males  and  females.  I  may  here  add  a  rather  dif- 
ferent case,  namely,  the  existence  in  France'"  of  a  wine- 
coloured  variety  of  the  Pouter,  in  which  the  male  is  generally 
chequered  with  black,  whilst  the  female  is  never  so  chequered. 
Dr.  Chapuis  also  remarks'*  that  in  certain  light-coloured 
pigeons  the  males  have  their  feathers  striated  with  black, 
and  these  striae  increase  in  size  at  each  moult,  so  that  the 
male  ultimately  becomes  spotted  with  black.  With  Carriers, 
the  wattle,  both  on  the  beak  and  round  the  eyes,  and  with 
Barbs  that  round  the  eyes,  goes  on  increasing  with  age. 
This  augmentation  of  character  with  advancing  age,  and 
more  especially  the  difference  between  the  males  and  females 
in  the  above-mentioned  several  respects,  are  remarkable  facts, 
for  there  is  no  sensible  difference  at  any  age  between  the  two 
sexes  in  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon;  and  not  often  any 
strongly  marked  difference  throughout  the  family  of  the  Co- 
lumbidse.''* 

Osteological  Characters. 

In  the  skeletons  of  the  various  breeds  there  is  much 
variability;  and  though  certain  differences  occur  frequently, 
and  others  rarely,  in  certain  breeds,  yet  none  can  be  said  to 
be  absolutely  characteristic  of  any  breed.  Considering  that 
strongly-marked  domestic  races  have  been  formed  cliietly  by 
man's  selection,  we  ought  not  to  expect  to  find  great  and 
constant  differences  in  the  skeleton;  for  fanciers  neither  see, 
nor  do  they  care  for,  modifications  of  structure  in  the  internal 


22  Boitard  aurl  Corbie,  '  Les 
Pigeons,'   &c..   1824,   p.  173. 

2*  '  Le  Pigeou  Voyageur  Beige,' 
1865,  p.  87.  I  have  given  in  mv 
'  Descent  of  Man  '  (6tli  edit.,  p. 
466)  some  curious  cases,  on  tlie 
autliority  of  Mr.  Tegetmeier.  of 
silver-coloured  {I.  e.  very  pale 
blue)  birds  being  generally  fe- 
males, and  of  the  ease  with  which 
a  race  thus  characterised  could 
be  produced.  Bonizzi  (see  '  Va- 
riazioui  del  Columbi  domestici,' 
Padova,  1873)  states  that  certain 
coloured  spots  are  often  different 


in  the  two  sexes,  and  that  certain 
tints  are  commoner  in  females 
than  in  male  pigeons. 

35  Prof.  A.  Newton  ('Proc.  Zoo- 
log.  Soc'  1865,  p.  716)  remarks 
that  he  knows  no  species  which 
present  anv  remarkal)le  sexual 
distinction:' but  Mr.  Wallace  in- 
forms me,  that  in  the  sub-family 
of  the  Treronidii'  the  sex«'s  oft<»n 
differ  considerably  in  colour.  See 
also  on  sexual  dilTereiices  in  the 
Columbi<l:v,  (Jould,  '  Handbook  to 
the  Birds  of  Australia,'  vol.  11. 
pp.   100-141). 


16S  DOMESTIC   PIGEOXS.  Chap.  V. 

framework.  Nor  ought  we  to  expect  changes  in  the  skeletons 
from  changed  habits  of  life;  as  every  facility  is  given  to  the 
most  distinct  breeds  to  follow  the  same  habits,  and  the  much 
modified  races  are  never  allowed  to  wander  abroad  and  pro- 
cure their  own  food  in  various  ways.  Moreover,  I  find,  on 
comparing  the  skeletons  of  Columba  livia,  oenas,  palumhus, 
and  turtur,  w^hich  are  ranked  by  all  sytematists  in  two  or 
three  distinct  though  allied  genera,  that  the  differences  are 
extremely  slight,  certainly  less  than  between  the  skeletons 
of  some  of  the  most  distinct  domestic  breeds.  How  far  the 
skeleton  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon  is  constant  I  have  had  no 
m.eans  of  judging,  as  I  have  examined  only  two. 

Skull. — The  individual  bones,  especially  those  at  the  base,  do 
not  differ  in  shape.  But  the  whole  skull,  in  its  proportions,  out- 
line, and  relative  direction  of  the  bones,  differs  greatly  in  some  of 
the  breeds,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  figures  of  (a)  the 
wild  rock-pigeon,  (b)  the  Short-faced  Tumbler,  (c)  the  English 
Carrier,  and  (d)  the  Bagadotten  Carrier  (of  Neumeister),  all 
drawn  of  the  natural  size  and  viewed  laterally.  In  the  Carrier, 
besides  the  elongation  of  the  bones  of  the  face,  the  space  between 
the  orbits  is  proportionally  a  little  narrower  than  in  the  rock- 
pigeon.  In  the  Bagadotten  the  upper  mandible  is  remarkably 
arched,  and  the  premaxillary  bones  are  proportionally  broader. 
In  the  Short-faced  Tumbler  the  skull  is  more  globular:  all  the 
bones  of  the  face  are  much  shortened,  and  the  front  of  the  skull 
and  descending  nasal  bones  are  almost  perpendicular:  the  maxillo- 
jugal  arch  and  premaxillary  bones  form  an  almost  straight  line; 
the  space  between  the  prominent  edges  of  the  eye-orbits  is  de- 
pressed. In  the  Barb  the  premaxillary  bones  are  much  shortened, 
and  their  anterior  portion  is  thicker  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  as  is 
the  lower  part  of  the  nasal  bone.  In  two  Nuns  the  ascending 
branches  of  the  premaxillaries,  near  the  tips,  were  somewhat  at- 
tenuated, and  in  these  birds,  as  well  as  in  some  others,  for  instance 
in  the  Spot,  the  occipital  crest  over  the  foramen  was  considerably 
more  prominent  than  in  the  rock-pigeon. 

In  the  lower  jaw,  the  articular  surface  is  proportionally  smaller 
in  many  breeds  than  in  the  rock-pigeon ;  and  the  vertical  diameter, 
more  especially  of  the  outer  part  of  the  articular  surface,  is  con- 
siderably shorter.  May  not  this  be  accounted  for  by  the  lessened 
use  of  the  jaws,  owing  to  nutritious  food  having  been  given  during 
a  long  period  to  all  highly  improved  pigeons?  In  Bunts,  Carriers, 
and  Barbs  (and  in  a  lesser  degree  in  several  breeds),  the  whole 
side  of  the  jaw  near  the  articular  end  is  bent  inwards  in  a  highly 
remarkable  manner;  and  the  superior  margin  of  the  ramus,  be- 
yond the  middle,  is  reflexed  in  an  equally  remarkable  manner,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  figures,  in  comparison  with  the 


Chap.  V. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES. 


169 


jaw  of  the  rock-pigeon.  This  reflection  of  the  iipper  margin  of 
the  lower  jaw  is  plainly  connected  with  the  singularly  wide  <rape 
of  the  mouth,  as  has  been  described  in  Kunts,  Carriers,  and  JJarbs. 


c, 


Fia.  24. — Skulls  of  Pigeons  viewed  laterally,  of  natural  size.  A.  Wild 
Eock-pigeou,  Colnmha  livia.  B.  Short-faced  Tumbler.  C.  English 
Carrier.     D.  Bagadotten  Carrier. 

The  reflection  is  well  shown  in  Fig.  26  of  the  head  of  a  Kunt  seen 
from  above :  here  a  wide  open  space  may  be  observed  on  each  side, 
between  the  edges  of  the  lower  jaw  and  of  the  premaxillary  bones. 


iro 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


Chap.  V. 


In  the  rock-pigeon,  and  in  several  domestic  breeds,  the  edges  of  the 
lower  jaw  on  each  side  come  close  up  to  the  premaxillary  bones,  so 


Fig.  25. — Lower  jaws,  seen  from  above,  of  natural  size. 

B.  Eunt.     C.  Barb. 


A.  Eock-pigeon. 


that  no  open  space  is  left.  The  degree  of  downward  curvature  of 
the  distal  half  of  the  lower  jaw  also  differs  to  an  extraordinary- 
degree  in  some  breeds,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  drawings  (Fig.  a)  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  (b)  of  the  Short-faced  Tumbler,  and  (c)  of  the 
Bagadotten  Carrier  of  Xeumeister.  In  some  Runts  the  symphysis  of 
the  lower  iaw  is  remarkablv  solid.  No  one  would  readilv  have  be- 
lieved  that  jaws  differing  in  the  several  above-specified  points  so 
greatly  could  have  belonged  to  the  same  species. 

Tcrfcltrw. — All  the  breeds  have  twelve  cervical  vertebrse.^®  But 
in  a  Bussorah  Cai'rier  from  India  the  twelfth  vertebra  carried  a 
small  rib,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  perfect  double 
articulation. 

The  dorsal  vertehrw  are  always  eight.     In  the  rock-pigeon  all 


eight  bear 
having  no 
eight  bear 
havinff  no 


ribs ;  the  eighth  rib 
process.  In  Pouters 
ribs;  the  eighth  rib 
process.     In  Pouters 


being  very  thin,  and  the  seventh 
all  the  ribs  are  extremelv  broad, 
beins:  verv  thin  and  the  seventh 
all  the  ribs  are  extremelv  broad, 
and,  in  three  out  of  four  skeletons  examined  by  me,  the  eighth  rib 
was  twice  or  even  thrice  as  broad  as  in  the  rock-pigeon:  and  the 
seventh  pair  had  distinct  processes.  In  many  breeds  there  are 
only  seven  ribs,  as  in  seven  out  of  eight  skeletons  of  various  Tum- 
blers, and  in  several  skeletons  of  Fantails,  Turbits  and  Nuns. 
In  all  these  breeds  the  seventh  pair  was  very  small,  and  was 


^^  I  am  not  snre  that  T  have 
designated  the  different  kinds  of 
vertebrae  correctly:  but  I  observe 
that   different    anatomists   follow 


in  this  respect  different  rules, 
and,  as  I  use  the  same  terms  in 
the  comparison  of  all  the  skele- 
tons, this,  I  hope,  will  not  signify. 


Chap.  V. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES. 


171 


destitute  of  processes,  in  which  respect  it  difTered  from  the  same 
rib  in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  one  Tumbler,  and  in  the  liussorah 
Carrier,  even  the  sixth  pair  had  no  process.  The  hypapophysis  of 
the  second  dorsal  vertebra  varies  much  in  development ;'  being 
sometimes  (as  in  several,  but  not  all  Tumblers)  nearly  as  promi- 
nent as  that  of  the  third  dorsal  vertebra;  and  tlie  two  hypapo- 
physes  together  tend  to  form  an  ossified  arch.  The  development 
of  the  arch,  formed  by  the  hypapophyses  of  the  third  and  fourth 
dorsal  vertebrae,  also  varies  considerably,  as  does  the  size  of  the 
hypapophysis  of  the  fifth  vertebra. 

The  rock-pigeon  has  twelve  sacral  vertchr-w;  but  these  vary  in 
number,  relative  size,  and  distinctness,  in  the  difTerent  breeds.  In 
Pouters,  with  their  elongated  bodies,  there  are  thirteen  or  even 
fourteen,  and,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  an  additional  number 


B 


Fig.  27. — Lateral  view  of  jaws,  of  natural 
size.  A.  Rock  pigeon.  B.  Short-faced 
Tumbler.    C.  Bagadotten  Carrier. 

of  caudal  vertebrae.  In  Runts  and  Carriers, 
there  is  generally  the  proper  number,  name- 
ly twelve;  but  in  one  Runt,  and  in  the  Bus- 
sorah  Carrier,  there  were  only  eleven.  In 
Tumblers  there  are  either  eleven,  or  twelve, 
or  thirteen  sacral  vertebrae. 

The  caudal  vertehrw  are  seven  in  num- 
ber in  the  rock-pigeon.  In  Fantails,  which 
have  their  tails  so  largely  developed,  there 
are  eight  or  nine,  and  apparently  in  one  case 
ten,  and  they  are  a  little  longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  and  their 
shape  varies  considerably.  Pouters,  also,  have  eight  or  nine  caudal 
vertebrae.  I  have  seen  eight  in  a  Nun  and  Jacobin.  Tumblers, 
though  such  small  birds,  always  have  the  normal  number  seveii ;  as. 
have  Carriers,  with  one  exception,  in  which  there  were  only  six. 


Fig.  26.— Skull  of  Eunt 
seen  from  above,  of 
natural  size,  showing 
the  reflexed  margin 
of  the  distal  portion 
of  the  lower  jaw. 


1Y2 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


Chap.  Y. 


The  following  table  will  serve  as  a  summary,  and  will  show  the 
most  rmarkable  deviations  in  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  and 
ribs  which  I  have  observed:  — 


Kock  Pigeon. 

Pouter,  from 
Mr.  Bult. 

Tumbler. 
Dutch  Roller. 

Bussorah 
Carrier. 

Cervical  Vertebrae 

Dorsal  Vertebrse  . 
"      Eibs.     .     . 

Sacral  Vertebrse    . 
Caudal  Vertebrae  . 

12 

8 

8 

The  6th  pair  with 

processes,  the  7th 

pair  without  a 

process. 

12 

7 

12 

8 

8 

The  6th  and 

7th  pair  with 

processes. 

14 

8  or  9 

12 

8 

7 
The  6th  and 
7th  pair  with- 
out processes 

11 

7 

12 

The  12th  bore 
a  small  rib. 

8 

7 
The  6th  and 
7th  pair  with- 
out processes 

11 

7 

Total  Vertebrse 

39 

42  or  43 

38 

38 

The  pelvis  differs  very  little  in  any  breed.  The  anterior  mar- 
gin of  the  ilium,  however,  is  sometimes  a  little  more  equally  round- 
ed on  both  sides  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  ischium  is  also 
frequently  rather  more  elongated.  The  obturator-notch  is  some- 
times, as  in  many  Tumblers,  less  developed  than  in  the  rock- 
pigeon.  The  ridges  on  the  ilium  are  very  prominent  in  most 
Eunts. 

In  the  bones  of  the  extremities  I  could  detect  no  difiFerence,  ex- 
cept in  their  proportional  lengths;  for  instance,  the  metatarsus  in 
a  Pouter  was  1.65  inch,  and  in  a  Short-faced  Tumbler  onlv  .95  in 
length;  and  this  is  a  greater  difference  than  would  naturally  fol- 
low from  their  difFerently-sized  bodies;  but  long  legs  in  the 
Pouter,  and  small  feet  in  the  Tumbler,  are  selected  points.  In 
some  Pouters  the  scapula  is  rather  straighter,  and  in  some  Tum- 
blers it  is  straighter,  with  the  apex  less  elongated,  than  in  the 
rock-pigeon;  in  the  woodcut,  Fig.  28,  the  scapulas  of  the  rock- 
pigeon  (a),  and  of  a  short-faced  Tumbler  (b),  are  given.  The 
processes  at  the  summit  of  the  coracoid,  which  receive  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  furculum,  form  a  more  perfect  cavity  in  some  Tum- 
blers than  in  the  rock-pigeon:  in  Pouters  these  processes  are  larger 
and  differently  shaped,  and  the  exterior  anple  of  the  extremity  of 
the  coracoid,  which  is  articulated  to  the  sternum,  is  squarer. 

The  two  arms  of  the  furculum  in  Pouters  diverge  less,  propor- 
tionally to  their  length,  than  in  the  rock-pigeon:  and  the  sym- 
physis is  more  solid  and  pointed.  In  Fantails  the  degree  of  di- 
vergence of  the  two  arms  varies  in  a  remarkable  manner.  In  Fig. 
29,  B  and  c  represent  the  furcula  of  two  Fantails;  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  diA-ergence  in  b  is  rnther  less  even  than  in  the  fur- 
culum of  the  short-faced,  small-sized  Tumbler    (a),  whereas  the 


Chap.  V. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES. 


173 


pigeon.    B.  Short-faced   riers 

Tumbler.  perforations 


divergence  in  c  equals  that  in  a  rock-pigeon,  or  in  the  Pouter  (d), 
though  the  latter  is  a  much  larger  bird.     The  extremities  of  the 

furculum,  wheie  ar- 
ticulated to  the  cora- 
coids,  vary  consider- 
ably in  outline. 

In  the  sternum 
the  differences  in 
form  are  slight,  ex- 
cept in  the  size  and 
outline  of  the  per- 
forations, which, 
both  in  the  larger 
and  lesser  sized 
breeds,  are  some- 
times small.  These 
perforations  also,  are 
sometimes  either 
nearly  circular,  or 
Pig.  28. — Scapulae,  of  elongated  as  is  often 
natural  size.    A.  Rock-   the    case    with    Car- 

The  posterior 
oc- 
casionally are  not  complete,  being  left  open 
posteriorly.  The  marginal  apophyses  form- 
ing the  anterior  perforations  vary  greatly  in 
development.  The  degree  of  convexity  of 
the  posterior  part  of  the  sternum  differs 
much,  being  sometimes  almost  perfectly  flat. 
The  manubrium  is  rather  more  prominent 
in  some  individuals  than  in  others,  and  the 
pore  immediately  under  it  varies  greatly  in 
size. 

Correlation  of  Growth.  By  this 
term  I  mean  that  the  whole  organisa- 
tion is  so  connected,  that  when  one  part 
varies,  other  parts  vary;  but  which  of 
two  correlated  variations  ought  to  be 
looked  at  as  the  cause  and  which  as  the 
effect,  or  whether  both  result  from  some 
common  cause,  we  can  seldom  or  never 
tell.  The  point  of  interest  for  us  is  that, 
when  fanciers,  by  the  continued  selec- 
tion  of   slight   variations,   have   largely   Fig     29.-^Furc-ula.  of 

,.^     ,  ,      ,,  _cx  •    -(-  natural  size.   A.  Short- 

modihed  one  part,  they  olten  unmten-     fuecd  Tuniblrr.  Rund 

tionally    produce     other    modifications.     C.  Fautail.  D.  router. 


174  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

For  instance,  the  beak  is  readily  acted  on  by  selection, 
and,  with  its  increased  or  diminished  length,  the  tongue 
increases  or  diminishes,  but  not  in  due  proportion;  for, 
in  a  Barb  and  Short-faced  Tumbler,  both  of  which  have 
very  short  beaks,  the  tongue,  taking  the  rock-pigeon  as  the 
standard  of  comparison,  was  proportionally  not  shortened 
enough,  whilst  in  two  Carriers  and  in  a  Runt  the  tongue,  pro- 
portionally with  the  beak,  was  not  lengthened  enough,  thus, 
in  a  first-rate  English  Carrier,  in  which  the  beak  from  the 
tip  to  the  feathered  base  w^as  exactly  thrice  as  long  as  in  a 
first-rate  Short-faced  Tumbler,  the  tongue  was  only  a  little 
more  than  twice  as  long.  But  the  tongue  varies  in  length  in- 
dependently of  the  beak :  thus  in  a  Carrier  with  a  beak  1.2 
inch  in  length,  the  tongue  was  .67  in  length :  whilst  in  a 
Bunt  which  equalled  the  Carrier  in  length  of  body  and  in 
stretch  of  wings  from  tip  to  tip,  the  beak  was  .92  whilst  the 
tongue  was  .73  of  an  inch  in  length,  so  that  the  tongue  was 
actually  longer  than  in  the  Carrier  with  its  long  beak.  The 
tongue  of  the  Bunt  was  also  verj'-  broad  at  the  root.  Of  two 
Bunts,  one  had  its  beak  longer  by  .23  of  an  inch,  whilst  its 
tongue  was  shorter  by  .14  than  in  the  other. 

With  the  increased  or  diminished  length  of  the  beak  the 
length  of  the  slit  forming  the  external  orifice  of  the  nostrils 
varies,  but  not  in  due  proportion,  for,  taking  the  rock-pigeon 
as  the  standard,  the  orifice  in  a  Short-faced  Tumbler  was  not 
shortened  in  due  proportion  with  its  very  short  beak.  On 
the  other  hand  (and  this  could  not  have  been  anticipated), 
the  orifice  in  three  English  Carriers,  in  the  Bagadotten 
Carrier,  and  in  a  Bunt  (pigeon  cygne),  was  longer  by  above 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  than  would  follow  from  the  length  of 
the  beak  proportionally  with  that  of  the  rock-pigeon.  In  one 
Carrier  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils  was  thrice  as  long  as  in 
the  rock-pigeon,  though  in  body  and  length  of  beak  this  bird 
was  not  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  rock-pigeon.  This 
greatly  increased  length  of  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils  seems  to 
stand  partly  in  correlation  v/ith  the  enlargement  of  the  wat- 
tled skin  on  the  upper  mandible  and  over  the  nostrils;  and 
this  is  a  character  which  is  selected  by  fanciers.  So  again, 
the  broad,  naked,  and  wattled  skin  round  the  eyes  of  Car- 
riers and  Barbs  is  a  selected  character;  and  in  obvious  cor- 


Chap.  V.  CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH.  I75 

relation  with  this,  the  eyelids,  measured  longitudinally,  are 
proportionally  more  than  double  the  length  of  those  of  the 
rock-pigeon. 

The  great  difference  (see  woodcut  No.  27)  in  the  curra- 
ture  of  the  lower  jaw  in  the  rock-pigeon,  the  Tumbler,  and 
Eagadotten  Carrier,  stands  in  obvious  relation  to  the  curva- 
ture of  the  upper  jaw,  and  more  especially  to  the  angle  formed 
by  the  maxillo-jugal  arch  with  the  premaxillary  bones.  But 
in  Carriers,  Eunts,  *and  Barbs  the  singular  reflexion  of  the 
upper  margin  of  the  middle  part  of  the  lower  jaw  (see  wood- 
cut Xo.  25)  is  not  strictly  correlated  with  the  width  or  di- 
vergence (as  may  be  clearly  seen  in  woodcut  No.  2G)  of  the 
premaxillary  bones,  but  with  the  breadth  of  the  horny  and 
soft  parts  of  the  upper  mandible,  which  are  always  overlapped 
by  the  edges  of  the  lower  mandible. 

In  Pouters,  the  elongation  of  the  body  is  a  selected  char- 
acter, and  the  ribs,  as  Ave  have  seen,  have  generally  become 
very  broad,  with  the  seventh  pair  furnished  with  processes; 
the  sacral  and  caudal  vertebrsG  have  been  augmented  in  num- 
ber; the  sternum  has  likewise  increased  in  length  (but  not 
in  the  depth  of  the  crest)  by  .4  of  an  inch  more  than  would 
follow  from  the  greater  bulk  of  the  body  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  rock-pigeon.  In  Fantails,  the  length  and  num- 
ber of  the  caudal  vertebras  have  increased.  Hence,  during  the 
gradual  progress  of  variation  and  selection,  the  internal  bony 
framework  and  the  external  shape  of  the  body  have  been,  to 
a  certain  extent,  modified  in  a  correlated  manner. 

Although  the  wings  and  tail  often  vary  in  length  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  that 
they  generallj^  tend  to  become  elongated  or  shortened  in 
correlation.  This  is  well  see  in  Jacobins,  and  still  more 
plainly  in  Runts,  some  varieties  of  which  have  their  wings 
and  tail  of  great  length,  whilst  others  have  both  very  short. 
With  Jacobins,  the  remarkable  length  of  the  tail  and  wing- 
feathers  is  not  a  character  which  is  intentionally  selected  by 
fanciers ;  but  fanciers  have  been  trying  for  centuries,  at  least 
since  the  year  1600,  to  increase  the  length  of  the  reversed 
feathers  on  the  neck,  so  that  the  hood  may  more  completely 
enclose  the  head ;  and  it  may  be  suspected  that  the  increased 
length  of  the  wing  and  tail-feathers  stand  in  correlation  with 


176  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

the  increased  length  of  the  neck-feathers.  Short-faced  Tum- 
blers have  short  wings  in  nearly  due  proportion  with  the  re- 
duced size  of  their  bodies;  but  it  is  remarkable,  seeing  that 
the  number  of  the  primary  wing-feathers  is  a  constant  charac- 
ter in  most  birds,  that  these  Tumblers  generally  have  only 
nine  instead  of  ten  primaries.  I  have  myself  observed  this  in 
eight  birds ;  and  the  Original  Columbarian  Society  ^'  reduced 
the  standard  for  Bald-head  Tumblers  from  ten  to  nine  white 
flight-feathers,  thinking  it  unfair  that  a  bird  which  had  only 
nine  feathers  should  be  disqualified  for  a  prize  because  it  had 
not  ten  white  flight-feathers.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Carriers 
and  Runts,  which  have  large  bodies  and  long  wings,  eleven 
primary  feathers  have  occasionally  been  observed. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  informed  me  of  a  curious  and  inexpli- 
cable case  of  correlation,  namely,  that  young  pigeons  of  all 
breeds  which  when  mature  become  white,  yellow,  silver  (i.  e.y 
extremely  pale  blue),  or  dun-coloured,  are  born  almost  naked; 
whereas  pigeons  of  other  colours  are  born  well-clothed  with 
down.  Mr.  Esquilant,  however,  has  observed  that  young  dun 
Carriers  are  not  so  bare  as  young  dun  Barbs  and  Tumblers. 
Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  seen  two  young  birds  in  the  same  nest, 
produced  from  differently  coloured  parents,  which  differed 
greatly  in  the  degree  to  which  they  were  at  first  clothed  with 
down. 

I  have  observed  another  case  of  correlation  which  at  first 
sight  appears  quite  inexplicable,  but  on  which,  as  we  shall 
see  in  a  future  chapter,  some  light  can  be  thrown  by  the  law 
of  homologous  parts  varying  in  the  same  manner.  The  case 
is,  that,  when  the  feet  are  much  feathered,  the  roots  of  the 
feathers  are  connected  by  a  web  of  skin,  and  apparently  in 
correlation  with  this  the  two  outer  toes  become  connected  for 
a  considerable  space  by  skin.  I  have  observed  this  in  very 
many  specimens  of  Pouters,  Trumpeters,  Swallows,  Roller- 
tumblers  (likewise  observed  in  this  breed  by  Mr.  Brent),  and 
in  a  lesser  degree  in  other  feather-footed  pigeons. 

The  feet  of  the  smaller  and  larger  breeds  are  of  course 
much  smaller  or  larger  than  those  of  the  rock-pigeon;  but 
the  scutellse  or  scales  covering  the  toes  and  tarsi  have  not 
only  decreased  or  increased  in  size,  but  likewise  in  number. 

"  J.  M.  Eaton's  Treatise,  edit.  1858,  p.  78. 


Chap.  V.  ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE.  177 

To  give  a  single  instance,  I  have  counted  eight  scutolUx?  on 
the  hind  toe  of  a  Eunt,  and  only  five  on  that  of  a  Short-faced 
Tumbler.  With  birds  in  a  state  of  nature  the  number  of  the 
scutell£e  on  the  feet  is  usually  a  constant  character.  The 
length  of  the  feet  and  the  length  of  the  beak  apparently 
stand  in  correlation;  but  as  disuse  apparently  has  affected 
the  size  of  the  feet,  this  case  may  come  under  the  following 
discussion. 

On  the  Effects  of  Disuse. — In  the  following  discussion  on 
the  relative  proportions  of  the  feet,  sternum,  furculum,  scapu- 
lae, and  wings,  I  may  premise,  in  order  to  give  some  confi- 
dence to  the  reader,  that  all  my  measurements  were  made  in 
the  same  manner,  and  that  they  w^ere  made  without  the  least 
intention  of  applying  them  to  the  following  purpose. 

I  measured  most  of  the  birds  which  came  into  my  possession, 
from  the  feathered  base  of  the  beak  (the  length  of  beak  itself 
being  so  variable)  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  to  the  oil-gland,  but 
unfortunately  (except  in  a  few  cases)  not  to  the  root  of  the  tail;  I 
measured  each  bird  from  the  extreme  tip  to  tip  of  wing;  and  the 
length  of  the  terminal  folded  part  of  the  wing,  from  the  extremity 
of  the  primaries  to  the  joint  of  the  radius.  I  measured  the  feet 
without  the  claws,  from  the  end  of  the  middle  toe  to  the  end  of 
the  hind  toe;  and  the  tarsus  and  middle  toe  together.  1  have 
taken  in  every  case  the  mean  measurement  of  two  wild  rock-pig- 
eons from  the  Shetland  Islands,  as  the  standard  of  comparison. 
The  following  table  shows  the  actual  length  of  the  feet  in  each 
bird;  and  the  difference  between  the  length  which  the  feet  ought 
to  have  had  according  to  the  size  of  body  of  each,  in  comparison 
with  the  size  of  body  and  length  of  feet  of  the  rock- pigeon,  calcu- 
lated (with  a  few  specified  exceptions)  by  the  standard  of  the 
length  of  the  body  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  oil-gland.  I 
have  preferred  this  standard,  owing  to  the  variability  of  the  length 
of  tail.  But  I  have  made  similar  calculations,  taking  as  the 
standard  the  length  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing,  and  likewise  in  most 
case  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail:  and  the 
result  has  always  been  closely  similar.  To  give  an  example:  the 
first  bird  in  the  table,  being  a  Short-faced  Tumbler,  is  nuich 
smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon,  and  would  naturally  have  shorter 
feet;  but  it  is  found  on  calculation  to  have  feet  too  short  by  .11 
of  an  inch,  in  comparison  with  the  feet  of  the  rock-pigeon,  rela- 
tivelv  to  the  size  of  the  bodv  in  these  two  birds,  as  measured  from 
the  base  of  beak  to  the  oil-gland.  So  again,  when  this  same 
Tumbler  and  the  rock-pigeon  were  compared  by  the  length  of  thoir 
winsis.  or  bv  the  extreme  length  of  their  bodies,  tlie  foet  of  the 
Tumbler  were  likewise  found  to  be  too  short  in  very  nearly  the  same 


178 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS. 


Chap.  V. 


proportion.     I  am  well  aware  that  the  measurements  pretend  to 
greater  accuracy  than  is  possible,  but  it  was  less  trouble  to  write 

Table  I. 

Pigeons  with  their  heaks  generally  shorter  than  that  of  the  Rock-pigeon, 
proportionally  to  the  size  of  their  bodies. 


Name  of  Breed, 

Actual 

length 

of  Feet. 

2.02 

Diflference      be- 
tween  actual   and. 
calculated    length 
of  feet,  in  propor- 
tion to  length  of 
feet    and    size   of 
body  in  the  Rock- 
pigeon. 

IVild  rock-pigeon  (mean  measurement)     .     .     . 

Too 
short  by 

Too  long 

by 

Short-faced  Tumbler,  bald-head 

"            "             almond 

Tumbler  red  masnie 

1.57 
1.60 
1.75 

0.11 
0.16 
0.19 

0.07 

0.18 

0.06 

0.17 

0.01 

0.15 

0.02 

0.06 

0.18 

0.15 

0.15 

0.0 

0.19 

0.03 

0.02 

0.16 

0.03 

0.62 

0.07 
0.18 

"         red  common  (by  standard  to  end  of 
tail) 

1.85 

"         common  bald-head 

roller 

1.S5 
1.80 

Turbit 

1.75 

u 

1.80 

il 

1.84 

-Jacobin 

1.90 

Trumpeter,  white 

2.02 

"             mottled    .               

1.95 

Fautail  (by  standard  to  end  of  tail)      .... 

•         «         •         • 

"     crested  var.        "                          .... 
Indian  Frill-back            "                          .... 
English  Frill- back 

1.85 
1.95 
1.95 
1.80 
2.10 

6.6 

Nun 

1.82 

X/augher 

1.65 

Barb 

2.00 

a 

2.00 
1.90 

0.03 

Spot 

h  i 

1.90 

■Swallow,  red 

1.85 

blue 

2.00 

0.03 

Pouter 

2.42 
2.30 

0.11 

"        German 

0.09 

Bussorah  Carrier 

2.17 

0.09 

Number  of  specimens 

28 

22 

5 

down  the  actual  measurements  given  by  the  compasses  in  each  case 
than  an  approximation. 


Chap.  V. 


ON  THE  EFFECTS  OP  DISUSE. 


179 


In  these  two  tables  we  see  in  the  first  column  the  actual  length 
of  the  feet  m  thirty-six  birds  belonging  to  various  breeds,  and  in 

Table  II. 

Pigeons  with  their  beaks  longer  than  that  of  the  Rock-pigeon,  proportionally 

to  the  size  of  their  bodies. 


Name  of  Breed. 


Wild  rock-pigeon  (mean  measurement) 

Carrier 

<i  ...... 

"        Dragon 

Bagadotten  Carrier 

Scanderoon,  white 

Pigeon  cygne 

Eunt 

Number  of  specimens      .... 


Difference  between 

actual  and  calculated 

Actual 

leni,'th  of  feet,  in  pro- 

length 

portion  to  lenj,'th  of 

of 

feet  and  eize  of  body 

Feet. 

in  the  Kock-pigeou. 

Too  short 

Too  long 

2.02 

by 

by 

2.60 

0.31 

2.60 

0.25 

2.40 

0.21 

2.25 

0.06 

2.80 

0.56 

2.80 

0.37 

2.85 

0.28 

2.75 

0.27 

8 

8 

the  two  other  columns  we  see  by  how  much  the  feet  are  too  short 
or  too  long,  according  to  the  size  of  bird,  in  comparison  with  the 
rock-pigeon.  In  the  first  table  twenty-two  specimens  have  their 
feet  too  short,  on  an  average  by  a  little  above  the  tenth  of  an  inch 
(viz.  .107)  ;  and  five  specimens  have  their  feet  on  an  average  a 
very  little  too  long,  namely,  by  .07  of  an  inch.  But  some  of  these 
latter  cases  can  be  explained;  for  instance,  with  Pouters  tiie  legs 
and  feet  are  selected  for  length,  and  thus  any  natural  tendency  to 
a  diminution  in  the  length  of  the  feet  will  have  been  counteracted. 
In  the  Swallow  and  Barb,  when  the  calculation  was  made  on 
any  standard  of  comparison  besides  the  one  used  (viz.  length  of 
body  from  base  of  beak  to  oil-gland),  the  feet  were  found  to  be 
too  small. 

In  the  second  table  we  have  eight  birds,  with  their  beaks  much 
longer  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  both  actually  and  proportionally 
with  the  size  of  body,  and  their  feet  are  in  an  equally  marked 
manner  longer,  namely,  in  proportion,  on  an  average  by  .29  of  an 
inch,  I  should  here  state  that  in  Table  I.  there  are  a  few  partial 
exceptions  to  the  beak  being  proportionally  shorter  than  in  the 
rock-pigeon:  thus  the  beak  of  the  English  Frill-back  is  just  per- 
ceptibly longer,  and  that  of  the  Bussorah  Carrier  of  the  same 
length  or  slightly  longer,  than  in  the  rock-pigeon.  The  beaks  of 
Spots,  Swallows,  and  Laughers  are  only  a  very  little  shorter,  or  of 
13 


130  DOMESTIC   PIGEOXS.  Chap.  V. 

the  same  proportional  length,  but  slenderer.  Nevertheless,  these 
two  tables,  taken  conjointly,  indicate  pretty  plainly  some  kind  of 
correlation  between  the  length  of  the  beak  and  the  size  of  the  feet. 
Breeders  of  ca.ttle  and  horses  believe  that  there  is  an  analogous 
coniiection  between  the  length  of  the  limbs  and  head;  they  assert 
that  a  race-horse  with  the  head  of  a  dray-horse,  or  a  grey-hound 
with  the  head  of  a  bulldog,  would  be  a  monstrous  production.  As 
fancy  pigeons  are  generally  kept  in  small  aviaries,  and  are  abun- 
dantly supplied  v.ith  food,  they  must  walk  about  much  less  than 
the  wild  rock-pigeon;  and  it  may  be  admitted  as  highly  probable 
that  the  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  feet  in  the  twenty-two  birds 
in  the  first  table  has  been  caused  by  disuse,^'^  and  that  this  re- 
duction has  acted  by  correlation  on  the  beaks  of  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  birds  in  Table  I.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  tlie  beak 
has  been  much  elongated  by  the  continued  selection  of  successive 
slight  increments  of  length,  the  feet  by  correlation  have  likewise 
become  much  elongated  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  wild  rock- 
pigeon,  notwithstanding  their  lessened  use. 

As  I  had  taken  measures  from  the  end  of  the  middle  toe  to  the 
heel  of  the  tarsus  in  the  rock-piaeon  and  in  the  above  thirtv- 
six  birds,  I  have  made  calculations  analogous  with  those  above 
given,  and  the  result  is  the  same, — namely,  that  in  the  short- 
beaked  breeds,  with  equally  few  exceptions  as  in  the  former 
case,  the  middle  toe  conjointly  with  the  tarsus  has  decreased 
in  length;  whereas  in  the  long-beaked  breeds  it  has  increased 
in  length  though  not  quite  so  uniformly  as  in  the  former 
\  or  the  leg  in  some  varieties  of  the  Runt  varies  much  in 
length. 

As  fancy  pigeons  are  generally  confined  in  aviaries  of  moderate 
size,  and  as  even  when  not  confined  thev  do  not  search  for  their 
own  food,  thev  must  durinj?  manv  generations  have  used  their 
wings  incomparably  less  than  th.e  wild  rock-pigeon.  Hence  it 
seemed  to  me  probable  that  all  the  parts  of  the  skeleton  subser- 
vient to  flight  would  be  found  to  be  reduced  in  size.  With  respect 
to  the  sternum,  I  have  carefully  measured  its  extreme  length  in 
twelve  birds  of  different  breeds,  and  in  tAvo  wild  rock-pigeons  from 
the  Shetland  Islands.  For  the  proportional  comparison  I  have 
tried  three  standards  of  measurement,  with  all  twelve  birds  name- 
ly, the  length  from  the  base  of  the  beak  to  the  oil-gland,  to  the 
end  of  the  tail,  and  from  the  extreme  tip  to  tip  of  wings.  The  re- 
sult has  been  in  each  case  nearly  the  same,  the  sternum  being  in- 
variably found  to  be  shorter  than  in  the  wild  rock-pigeon.  I  will 
give  only  a  single  table,  as  calculated  by  the  standard  from  the 
base  of  the  beak  to  the  oil-gland;  for  the  result  in  this  case  is 
nearly  the  mean  between  the  results,  obtained  by  the  two  other 
standi  ards. 

This  table  shows  that  in  these  twelve  breeds  the  sternum  is  of 

^^  In    an    analogous,     but    con-  habi'_s   than    other   allied   groups, 

verse,     manner,     certain     natural  have     larger     feet.      8"C     Prince 

croups    of   the    Columbidfe,    from  P>nnaparte's       '  Coup  -  d'oeil       sur 

being    more    terrestrial    in    their  I'Order  des  Pigeons.' 


Chap.  V. 


ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF   DISUSE. 


181 


an  average  one-third  of  an  inch   (exactly  .332)  shorter  than  in  the 
rock-pigeon,  proportionally  with  the  size  of  their  bodies;  so  tiiat 

Length  of  Sternum. 


Name  of  Breed. 


Wild  Eock-pigeon  . 
Pied  Scanderuun  .  . 
Bagadutteu  Carrier  . 

Dragon 

Carrier 

Short-faced  Tumbler 


Actual 

Length, 

Inches. 


2.55 

'2.80 
2.80 
2.45 
2.75 
2.05 


Too 
short  by 


0.60 
0.17 
0.41 
0.35 

0.28 


Name  of  Breed. 


Barb 

Nun 

German  Pouter  . 
Jacobin  .... 
English  Frill-back 
Swallow  .... 


Actual 
Length. 
Inches. 


2.35 

2.27 
2.3(> 
2.33 
2.40 
2.45 


Too 
shdfi  by 


0.34 
0.15 
0.54 
0.22 
0.43 
0.17 


the  sternum  has  been  reduced  by  between  one-seventh   and   one- 
eighth  of  its  entire  length;   and  this  is  a  considerable  reduction. 

I  have  also  measured  in  twenty-one  birds,  including  the  above 
dozen,  the  prominence  of  the  crest  of  the  sternum  relatively  to  its 
length,  independently  of  the  size  of  the  body.  In  tv»o  of  the  twen- 
ty-one birds  the  crest  was  prominent  in  the  same  relative  degree 
as  in  the  rock-pigeon;  in  seven  it  w^as  more  prominent;  but  in  five 
out  of  these  seven,  namely,  in  a  Fantail,  two  Scanderoons,  and  two 
English  Carriers,  this  greater  prominence  may  to  a  certain  extent 
be  explained,  as  a  prominent  breast  is  admired  and  selected  by 
fanciers;  in  the  remaining  twelve  birds  the  prominence  was  less. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  crest  exhibits  a  slight,  though  uncertain 
tendency  to  be  reduced  in  prominence  in  a  greater  degree  than  does 
the  length  of  the  sternum  relatively  to  the  size  of  body,  in  com- 
parison with  the  rock-pigeon. 

I  have  measured  the  length  of  the  scapula  in  nine  difl'crent 
large  and  small-sized  breeds,  and  in  all  the  scapula  is  proportion- 
ally shorter  (taking  the  same  standard  as  before)  than  in  tbe  wild 
rock-pigeon.  The  reduction  in  length  on  an  aAcrage  is  very  nearly 
one-fifth  of  an  inch,  or  about  one-ninth  of  the  length  of  the  scap- 
ula in  the  rock-pigeon. 

The  arms  of  the  furcula  in  all  the  specimens 
pared,  diverged  less,  proportionally  with  the  size 
in  the  rock-pigeon;  and  the  whole  furculum  was 
shorter.  Thus  in  a  Runt,  which  measured  from 
wings  38i  inches,  the  furculum  was  only  a  very  little  loncrer  (with 
the  arms  hardly  more  divergent)  than  in  a  rock-pigeon  which  meas- 
ured from  tip  to  tip  26i  inches.  In  a  Barb,  which  in  all  its  meas- 
urements was  a  little  larger  than  the  same  rock-pigeon,  the  furcu- 
lum was  a  quarter  of  an  inch  shorter.  In  a  Pouter,  the  furculum 
had  not  been  lengthened  proportionally  witli  the  increased  length 
of  the  bodv.  In  a  Short-faced  Tumbler,  which  measured  fnun  tip 
to  tip  of  wings  24  inches,  therefore  only  2^  inches  less  than  the 
rock-pigeon,  the  furculum  was  barely  two-thirds  of  the  length  of 
that  of  the  rock-pigeon. 


which  I  com- 
of  body,  than 
proportionally 
tip    to    tip    of 


282  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

We  thus  clearly  see  that  the  sternum,  scapulae,  and  furcu- 
lum  are  all  reduced  in  proportional  length ;  but  when  we  turn 
to  the  wings  we  find  what  at  first  appears  a  wholly  different 
and  unexpected  result.  I  may  here  remark  that  I  have  not 
picked  out  specimens,  but  have  used  every  measurement  made 
by  me.  Taking  the  length  from  the  base  of  beak  to  the  end 
of  the  tail  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  I  find  that,  out  of 
thirty-five  birds  of  various  breeds,  twenty-five  have  wings  of 
greater,  and  ten  have  them  of  less  proportional  length,  than 
in  the  rock-pigeon.  But  from  the  frequently  correlated 
length  of  the  tail  and  wing-feathers,  it  is  better  to  take  as 
the  standard  of  comparison  the  length  from  the  base  of  the 
beak  to  the  oil-gland;  and  by  this  standard,  out  of  twenty- 
six  of  the  same  birds  which  have  been  thus  measured,  twenty- 
one  had  wings  too  long,  and  only  five  had  them  too  short. 
In  the  twenty-one  birds  the  wings  exceeded  in  length  those  of 
the  rock-pigeons,  on  an  average,  by  l-g  inch ;  whilst  in  the  five 
birds  they  were  less  in  length  by  only  .8  of  an  inch.  As  I 
was  much  surprised  that  the  wings  of  closely  confined  birds 
should  thus  so  frequently  have  been  increased  in  length,  it 
occurred  to  me  that  it  might  be  solely  due  to  the  greater 
length  of  the  wing-feathers;  for  this  certainly  is  the  case 
wdth  the  Jacobin,  which  has  wings  of  unusual  length.  As  in 
almost  every  case  I  had  measured  the  folded  wings,  I  sub- 
tracted the  length  of  this  terminal  part  from  that  of  the  ex- 
panded wings,  and  thus  I  obtained,  with  a  moderate  degree  of 
accuracy,  the  length  of  the  wings  from  the  ends  of  the  two 
radii,  answering  from  wrist  to  wrist  in  our  arms.  The  wings, 
thus  measured  in  the  same  twenty-five  birds,  now  gave  a 
widely  different  result;  for  they  were  proportionally  with 
those  of  the  rock-pigeons  too  short  in  seventeen  birds,  and 
in  only  eight  too  long.  Of  these  eight  birds,  five  were  long- 
beaked,^^  and  this  fact  perhaps  indicates  that  there  is  some 
correlation  of  the  length  of  the  beak  with  the  length  of  the 
bones  of  the  wings,  in  the  same  manner  as  with  that  of  the 

2^  It  perhaps  deserves  notice  beaked  Carriers.  It  would,  there- 
tliat  besides  tliese  five  birds  two  fore,  appear  as  if,  during  the  re- 
ef the  eight  were  Barbs,  which,  duction  of  tlieir  beal^s.  their 
as  I  liave  shown,  must  be  classed  wings  had  retained  a  little  of  that 
in  the  same  group  with  the  louir-  excess  of  length  which  is  charac- 
beaked  Carriers  and  Runts.  Barbs  teristic  of  their  nearest  relations 
may    properlj'     be     called     short-  and  progenitors. 


Chap.  V.  SUMMARY  OF   DIFFERENTES.  183 

feet  and  tarsi.  The  shoi*tenin<?  of  the  humerus  and  radius  in 
the  seventeen  birds  may  probably  be  attributed  to  disuse,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  scapulae  and  furculum  to  which  the  wing- 
bones  are  attached; — the  lengthening  of  the  wing-feathers, 
and  consequently  the  expansion  of  the  wings  from  tip  to  tip, 
being,  on  the  other  hand,  as  completely  independent  of  use 
and  disuse  as  is  the  growth  of  the  hair  or  wool  on  our  long- 
haired dogs  or  long-woolled  sheep. 

To  sum  up:  w^e  may  confidently  admit  that  the  length  of 
the  sternum,  and  frequently  the  prominence  of  its  crest,  the 
length  or  the  scapulas  and  furculum,  have  all  been  reduced  in 
size  in  comparison  with  the  same  parts  in  the  rock-pigeon. 
And  I  presume  that  this  may  be  attributed  to  disuse  or 
lessened  exercise.  The  wings,  as  measured  from  the  ends  of 
the  radii,  have  likewise  been  generally  reduced  in  length; 
but,  owing  to  the  increased  growth  of  the  wing-feathers,  the 
wings,  from  tip  to  tip  are  commonly  longer  than  in  the  rock- 
pigeon.  The  feet,  as  well  as  the  tarsi  conjointly  with  the 
middle  toe,  have  likewise  in  most  cases  become  reduced ;  and 
this  it  is  probable  has  been  caused  by  their  lessened  use; 
but  the  existence  of  some  sort  of  correlation  betv/een  the 
feet  and  beak  is  shown  more  plainly  than  the  effects  of 
disuse.  We  have  also  some  faint  indication  of  a  similar 
correlation  between  the  main  bones  of  the  wing  and  the: 
beak. 

Summary  on  the  Points  of  Difference  hetween  the  several 
Domestic  Races  and  hetween  the  individual  Birds. — The 
beak,  together  with  the  bones  of  the  face,  differ  remarkably  in 
length,  breadth,  shape,  and  curvature.  The  skull  differs  in 
shape,  and  greatly  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
premaxillary,  nasal,  and  maxillo-jugal  bones.  The  curvature 
of  the  lower  jaw  and  the  reflexion  of  its  upper  margin,  as 
well  as  the  gape  of  the  mouth,  differ  in  a  highly  remarkable 
manner.  The  tongue  varies  much  in  length,  both  inde- 
pendently and  in  correlation  wdth  the  length  of  the  beak.. 
The  development  of  the  naked,  wattled  skin  over  the  nostrils 
and  round  the  eyes  varies  in  an  extreme  degree.  The  eyelids 
and  the  external  orifices  of  the  nostrils  vary  in  length,  and 
are  to  a  certain  extent  correlated  with  the  degree  of  develt^j)- 
ment  of  the  wattle.     The  size  and  form  of  the  ccsophagus. 


184  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  V. 

and  crop,  and  their  capacity  for  inflation,  differ  immensely. 
The  length  of  the  neck  varies.  With  the  varying  shape  of 
the  body,  the  breadth  and  number  of  the  ribs,  the  presence  of 
processes,  the  number  of  the  sacral  vertebrae,  and  the  length 
of  the  sternum,  all  vary.  The  number  and  size  of  the  coc- 
cygeal vertebras  vary,  apparently  in  correlation  with  the  in- 
<3reased  size  of  the  tail.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  perfora- 
tions in  the  sternum,  and  the  size  and  divergence  of  the  arms 
of  the  furculum,  differ.  The  oil-gland  varies  in  development, 
and  is  sometimes  quite  aborted.  The  direction  and  length  of 
certain  feathers  have  been  much  modified,  as  in  the  hood  of 
the  Jacobin  and  the  frill  of  the  Turbit.  The  wing  and  tail- 
feathers  generally  vary  in  length  together,  but  sometimes 
independently  of  each  other  and  of  the  size  of  the  body.  The 
number  and  position  of  the  tail-feather  vary  to  an  unpar- 
alleled degree.  The  primary  and  secondary  wing  feathers  oc- 
casionally vary  in  number,  apparently  in  correlation  with  the 
length  of  the  wing.  The  length  of  the  leg  and  the  size  of  the 
feet,  and,  in  connection  with  the  latter,  the  number  of  the 
scutellas,  all  vary.  A  web  of  skin  sometimes  connects  the 
bases  of  the  two  inner  toes,  and  almost  invariably  the  two 
•outer  toes  when  the  feet  are  feathered. 

The  size  of  the  body  differs  greatly:  a  Runt  has  been 
known  to  weigh  more  than  five  times  as  much  as  a  Short- 
faced  Tumbler.  The  eggs  differ  in  size  and  shape.  Accord- 
ing to  Parmentier,*"  some  races  use  much  straw  in  building 
their  nests,  and  others  use  little;  but  I  cannot  hear  of  any 
recent  corroboration  of  this  statement.  The  length  of  time 
Tequired  for  hatching  the  eggs  is  uniform  in  all  the  breeds. 
The  period  at  which  the  characteristic  plumage  of  some 
breeds  is  acquired,  and  at  which  certain  changes  of  colour 
supervene,  differs.  The  degree  to  which  the  young  birds  are 
clothed  with  down  when  first  hatched  is  different,  and  is 
<3orrelated  in  a  singular  manner  with  the  colour  of  the  plum- 
age. The  manner  of  flight,  and  certain  inherited  movements, 
such  as  clapping  the  wings,  tumbling  either  in  the  air  or  on 
the  ground,  and  the  manner  of  courting  the  female,  present 
the  most  singular  differences.    In  disposition  the  several  races 

*'*  Temminck,  '  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  des  Pigeons  et  des  Gallinaces,' 
torn,  i.,  1813,   p.  170. 


Chap.  V.  SUMMARY  OF   DIFFERENCES.  1^>5 

differ.     Some  races  are  very  silent;  others  coo  in  a  highly 
peculiar  manner. 

Although  many  diiferent  races  have  kept  true  in  charac- 
ter during  several  centuries,  as  we  shall  hereafter  more  fully 
see,  yet  there  is  far  more  individual  variability  in  the  most 
constant  breeds  than  in  birds  in  a  state  of  nature.  There  is 
hardly  any  exception  to  the  rule  that  those  characters  vary 
most  which  are  now  most  valued  and  attended  to  by  fanciers, 
and  which  consequently  are  now  being  improved  by  continued 
selection.  This  is  indirectly  admitted  by  fanciers  when  they 
complain  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  breed  high  fancy 
pigeons  up  to  the  proper  standard  of  excellence  than  the  so- 
called  toy  pigeons,  which  differ  from  each  other  merely  in 
colour;  for  particular  colours  when  once  acquired  are  not 
liable  to  continued  improvement  or  augmentation.  Some 
characters  become  attached,  from  quite  unknowm  causes, 
more  strongly  to  the  male  than  to  the  female  sex;  so  that  we 
have  in  certain  races  a  tendency  towards  the  appearance  of 
secondary  sexual  characters,"  of  which  the  aboriginal  rock- 
pigeon  displays  not  a  trace. 

*i  This  term  was  used  bv  John  nected  with  the  act  of  reproduc- 

Himter    for    such    differences    in  tion,   as  the  tail   of  the  peacoclj, 

structure  between  the  males  and  the  horns  of  the  deer,  &c. 
females,  as  are  not  directly  con- 


186  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

PIGEONS — continued. 

On  the  aboriginal  parent-stock  of  the  several  domestic  races — Habits  of 
life — Wild  races  of  the  rock-pigeon — Dovecot-pigeons — Proofs  of  the 
descent  of  the  several  races  from  Columbia  livia — Fertility  of  the  races 
when  crossed — Reversion  to  the  plumage  of  the  wild  rock-pigeon — 
Circumstances  favourable  to  the  formation  of  the  races — Antiquity 
and  history  of  the  principal  races — Manner  of  their  formation — Selec- 
tion— Unconscious  selection — Care  taken  by  fanciers  in  selecting  their 
birds — Slightly  difterent  strains  gradually  change  into  well-marked 
breeds — Extinction  of  intermediate  forms — Certain  breeds  remain 
permanent,  whilst  others  change — Summary. 

The  differences  described  in  the  last  chapter  between  the 
eleven  chief  domestic  races  and  between  individual  birds  of 
the  same  race,  would  be  of  little  significance,  if  they  had  not 
all  descended  from  a  single  wild  stock.  The  question  of  their 
origin  is  therefore  of  fundamental  importance,  and  must  be 
discussed  at  considerable  length.  ISTo  one  will  think  this 
superfluous  who  considers  the  great  amount  of  difference  be- 
tween the  races,  who  knows  how  ancient  many  of  them  are, 
and  how  truly  they  breed  at  the  present  day.  Fanciers  al- 
most unanimously  believe  that  the  different  races  are  de- 
scended from  several  wild  stocks,  whereas  most  naturalists 
believe  that  all  are  descended  from  the  Columbia  livia  or 
rock-pigeon. 

Temminck  ^  has  well  observed,  and  Mr.  Gould  has  made 
the  same  remark  to  me,  that  the  aboriginal  parent  must  have 
been  a  species  which  roosted  and  built  its  nest  on  rocks ;  and 
I  may  add  that  it  must  have  been  a  social  bird.  For  all  the 
domestic  races  are  highly  social,  and  none  are  known  to 
build  or  habitually  to  roost  on  trees.  The  awkward  manner 
in  which  some  pigeons,  kept  by  me  in  a  summer-house  near 
an  old  walnut-tree,  occasionally  alighted  on  the  barer 
branches,  was  evident.^     Nevertheless,  Mr.  R.  Scot  Skirving 

1  Temminck,    '  Hist.   Nat.    Gen.  some  half-bred  Carriers  kept  dur- 
des  Pieeons.'   &c.,   torn.   i.   p.   191.  ing  many  years  near  London  reg- 

2  I  have  heard  through   Sir  C.  ularly  settled  by  day  on  some  ad- 
Lyell    from    Miss    Buckley,    that  joining    trees,    and,    after    being 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


187 


informs  me  that  he  often  saw  crowds  of  pij^cons  in  Upper 
Egypt  settling  on  low  trees,  but  not  on  palms,  in  preference 
to  alighting  on  the  mud  hovels  of  the  natives.  In  India  Mr. 
Blyth'  has  been  assured  that  the  wild  C.livia,YaT.  intermedia^ 
sometimes  roosts  in  trees.  I  may  here  give  a  curious  in- 
stance of  compulsion  leading  to  changed  habits :  the  banks  of 
the  JSTile  above  lat.  28°  30'  are  perpendicular  for  a  long  dis- 
tance, so  that  when  the  river  is  full  the  pigeons  cannot  alight 
on  the  shore  to  drink,  and  Mr.  Skirving  repeatedly  saw  whole 
flocks  settle  on  the  water,  and  drink  whilst  they  floated  down 
the  stream.  These  flocks  seen  from  a  distance  resembled 
flocks  of  gulls  on  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

If  any  domestic  race  had  descended  from  a  species  which 
was  not  social,  or  which  built  its  nest  and  roosted  in  trees,* 
the  sharp  eyes  of  fanciers  would  assuredly  have  detected  some 
vestige  of  so  difterent  an  aboriginal  habit.  For  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  aboriginal  habits  are  long  retained 
under  domestication.  Thus  with  the  common  ass  we  see 
signs  of  its  original  desert  life  in  its  strong  dislike  to  cross 
the  smallest  stream  of  water,  and  in  its  pleasure  in  rolling  in 
the  dust.  The  same  strong  dislike  to  cross  a  stream  is  com- 
mon to  the  camel,  which  has  been  domesticated  from  a  very 
ancient  period.  Young  pigs,  though  so  tame,  sometimes, 
squat  when  frightened,  and  thus  try  to  conceal  themselves 
even  on  an  open  and  bare  place.  Young  turkeys,  and  occa- 
sionally^ even  young  fowls,  when  the  hen  gives  the  danger- 
cry,  run  away  and  try  to  hide  themselves,  like  young  par- 
tridges or  pheasants,  in  order  that  their  mother  may  take 
flight  of  which  she  has  lost  the  power.  The  musk-duck 
{Cairina  moschata)  in  its  native  country  often  perches  and 
roosts  on  trees,^  and  our  domesticated  musk-ducks,  though 
such  sluggish  birds,  "  are  fond  of  perching  on  the  tops  of 


disturbed  in  their  loft  V)y  their 
young  being  taken,  roosted  on 
them  at  night. 

3  '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat. 
Hist.,'  2nd  ser.,  vol.  xx.,  1857,  p. 
509;  and  in  a  late  volnine  of  the 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society. 

*  In  works  written  on  the  pig- 
eon by  fanciers  I  have  sometimes 
observed  the  mistaken  belief  ex- 
pressed that  the  species  which 
naturalists   called   ground-pigeons 


(in  contradistinction  to  arboreal 
pigeons)  do  not  perch  and  build 
on  trees.  In  these  same  works 
by  fanciers  wild  species  resem- 
bling the  chief  domestic  races  are 
often  said  to  exist  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  but  such  siie- 
cies  are  quite  iinUnown  to  natu- 
ralists. 

=^  vSir  R.  Schomburgk.  in  '  .lour- 
nal  R.  Geograph.  Soc.,'  vol.  xiii., 
1844,  p.  32. 


288  DO:\IESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

barns,  ^Yalls,  &c.,  and,  if  allowed  to  spend  the  night  in  the 
hen-house,  the  female  will  generally  go  to  roost  by  the  side 
of  the  hens,  but  the  drake  is  too  heavy  to  mount  thither  with 
ease." "  We  know  that  the  dog,  how^ever  well  and  regularly 
fed,  often  buries,  like  the  fox,  any  superfluous  food;  and  we 
see  him  turning  round  and  round  on  a  carpet,  as  if  to  trample 
down  grass  to  form  a  bed;  we  see  him  on  bare  pavements 
scratching  backwards  as  if  to  throw  earth  over  his  excrement, 
although,  as  I  believe,  this  is  never  effected  even  where  there 
is  earth.  In  the  delight  with  which  the  lambs  and  kids 
<3rowd  together  and  frisk  on  the  smallest  hillock,  we  see  a  ves- 
tige of  their  former  alpine  habits. 

We  have  therefore  good  reason  to  believe  that  all  the 
•domestic  races  of  the  pigeon  are  descended  either  from  some 
•one  or  from  several  species  which  both  roosted  and  built  their 
nests  on  rocks,  and  were  social  in  disposition.  As  only  five 
or  six  wild  species  have  these  habits,  and  make  any  near  ap- 
proach in  structure  to  the  domesticated  pigeon,  I  will  enum- 
■erate  them. 

Firstlv,  the  Columha  leuconota  resembles  certain  domestic  va- 
xieties  in  its  phimage,  with  the  one  marked  and  never-faiUng  differ- 
ence of  a  white  band  which  crosses  the  tail  at  some  distance  from 
the  extremity.  This  species,  moreover,  inhabits  the  Himalaya, 
-close  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow;  and  therefore,  as  Mr.  Blyth 
has  remarked,  is  not  likely  to  have  been  the  parent  of  our  domes- 
tic breeds,  which  thrive  in  the  hottest  countries.  Secondly,  the 
C.  rupcstris,  of  Central  Asia,  which  is  intermediate  ^  between  the 
C.  leuconota  and  livia;  but  has  nearly  the  same  coloured  tail  as 
the  former  species.  Thirdly,  the  Coluniha  Ultoralis  builds  and 
roosts,  according  to  Temminck,  on  rocks  in  the  Malayan  archi- 
pelago ;  it  is  white,  excepting  parts  of  the  wing  and  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  which  are  black ;  its  legs  are  livid-coloured,  and  this  is  a  char- 
acter not  observed  in  any  adult  domestic  pigeon;  but  I  need  not 
have  mentioned  this  species  or  the  closely-allied  C.  luctuosa,  as 
they  in  fact  belong  to  the  genus  Carpophaga.  Fourthly,  Columha 
guinea,  which  ranges  from  Guinea*  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
roosts  either  on  trees  or  rocks,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  coun- 
try.    This  species  belongs  to  the  genus  Strictoenas  of  Reichenbach, 

«  Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,   '  Ornamen-  in  his  '  Coup  d'oeil,'  believes  that 

tal  Poultry.'  1848,  pp.  63,  60.  two  closely  allied  species  are  con- 

^  Proc.  '  Zoolog.    Soc,    1859,    p.  founded      tosrether      under      this 

400.  name.     The  C.  leucoccphala  of  the 

8  Temminck,    '  Hist.   Nat.    Gen.  West    Indies    is    stated    by    Tem- 

des   Pigeons,'   torn.    i. ;    also   '  Les  minck  to  be  a  rock-pigeon;  but  I 

Pigeons,'     par     Mme.     Knip     and  am   informed   by   Mr.   Gosse   that 

'Temminck.     Bonaparte,  however,  this  is  an  error. 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  189 

but  is  closely  allied  to  Columba;  it  is  to  some  extent  coloured 
like  certain  domestic  races,  and  has  been  said  to  be  domesticated 
in  Abyssinia;  but  Mr.  Mansfield  Parkyns,  who  colh'cted  the  birds 
of  that  country  and  knows  the  species,  inluiins  nie  tliat  this  is  a 
mistake.  Moreover,  the  C.  yuinm  is  characterized  by  the  feathers 
of  the  neck  having  peculiar  notched  tii)s, — a  cliaracter  not  observed 
in  any  domestic  race.  Fifthly,  the  Coliimha  (nuts  of  Europe,  wiiich 
roosts  on  trees,  and  builds  its  nest  in  holes,  either  in  trees  or  the 
ground;  this  species,  as  far  as  external  characters  go,  miglit  be  the 
parent  of  several  domestic  races;  but,  though  it  crosses  readily 
with  the  true  rock-pigeon,  the  offspring,  as  we  sliall  presently  see, 
are  sterile  hybrids,  and  of  such  sterility  there  is  not  a  trace  when 
the  domestic  races  are  intercrossed.  It  sliould  also  be  observed 
that  if  we  were  to  admit,  against  all  probability,  that  any  of  the 
foregoing  five  or  six  species  were  the  parents  of  some  of  our  do- 
mestic pigeons,  not  the  least  light  would  be  thrown  on  tlie  chief 
differences  between  the  eleven  most  strongly-marked  races. 

We  now  come  to  the  best  known  rock-pi<>eon,  tlie  Coliiniha 
livio,  which  is  often  designated  in  Europe  pre-eminently  as  the 
Rock-pigeon,  and  \Ahich  naturalists  believe  to  be  the  parent  of  all 
the  domesticated  breeds.  This  bird  agrees  in  every  essential  char- 
acter with  the  breeds  which  have  been  only  slightly  modified.  It 
differs  from  all  other  species  in  being  of  a  slaty-blue  colour,  with 
two  black  bars  on  the  wings,  and  with  the  croup  (or  loins)  white. 
Occasionally  birds  are  seen  in  Faroe  and  the  Hebrides  with  the 
black  bars  replaced  by  two  or  three  black  spots:  this  form  has 
been  named  by  Brehm  ^  C.  amalUr,  but  this  species  has  not  been 
admitted  as  distinct  by  other  ornithologists.  Graba  "^  even  found 
a  difference  in  the  bars  on  the  right  and  left  wings  of  the  same 
bird  in  Faroe.  Another  and  rather  more  distinct  form  is  either 
truly  wild  or  has  become  feral  on  the  cliffs  of  Enghind  and  was 
doubtfully  named  by  Mr.  Blyth "  as  C.  affinls,  but  is  now  no 
longer  considered  by  him  as  a  distinct  species.  C.  (iffi)iis  is  ratlier 
smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon  of  the  Scottish  islands,  and  has  a 
very  different  appearance  owing  to  the  wing-coverts  being  cheq- 
uered with  black,  with  similar  marks  often  extending  over  the 
back.  The  chequering  consists  of  a  large  black  spot  on  the  two 
sides,  but  chiefly  on  the  outer  side,  of  each  feather.  The  wing- 
bars  in  the  true  rock-pigeon  and  in  the  chequered  variety  are, 
in  fact,  due  to  similar  though  larger  spots  symmetrically  crossing 
the  secondary  wing-feather  and  the  larger  coverts.  Hence  the 
chequering  arises  merely  from  an  extension  of  these  marks  to  other 
parts  of  the  plumage.  Chequered  birds  are  not  confined  to  tiie 
coasts  of  England;  for  thev  were  found  by  Graba  at  Faroe;  and 
W.  Thompson  '^  says  that  a\  Islay  fully  half  the  wild  rock-pigeons 

»  '  Handbuch    der    Naturgesch.  excellent  papor  on  pigeons  is  well 

Vogel  Deiitschlands.'  worth  consulting.  ^  ,     , 

lO'Tagebuch,  Reise  nach  Faro,'  i^' Natural  History  of  IrclaiKl. 

1830,  s    62  Birds,   vol.   li.    (ISr.O).   p.   11.      For 

11  '  Annals    and    Mag.    of    Nat.  Graba,  see  previous  reference. 
Hist.,'  vol.  xix.  1847,  p.  102.     This 


190  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Ghap.  VI. 

were  chequered.  Colonel  King,  of  Hythe,  stocked  his  dovecot  with 
young  wild  birds  which  he  himself  procured  from  nests  at  the 
Orkney  Islands;  and  several  specimens,  kindly  sent  to  me  by  him, 
were  all  plainly  chequered.  As  we  thus  see  that  chequered  birds 
occur  mingled  with  the  true  rock-pigeon  at  three  distinct  sites, 
namely,  Faroe,  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  Islay,  no  importance  can 
be  attached  to  this  natural  variation  in  the  plumage. 

Prince  C.  L.  Bonapai'te,^^  a  great  divider  of  species,  enumerates, 
with  a  mark  of  interrogation,  as  distinct  from  C.  livia,  the  C.  tur- 
ricola  of  Italy,  the  C.  riiiKStris  of  Daouria,  and  the  C.  scliimperi 
of  Abvssinia;  but  these  birds  differ  from  C.  livia  in  characters  of 
the  most  trifling  value.  In  the  British  Museum  there  is  a  cheq- 
uered pigeon,  probably  the  C.  schintperl  of  Bonaparte,  from  Abys- 
sinia. To  these  may  be  added  the  C.  gymnoci/clus  of  G.  R.  Gray 
from  "\V.  Africa,  which  is  slightly  more  distinct,  and  has  rather 
more  naked  skin  round  the  eyes  than  the  rock-pigeon;  but  from 
information  given  me  by  Dr.  Daniell,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this 
is  a  wild  bird,  for  dovecot-pigeons  (which  I  have  examined)  are 
kept  on  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

The  wild  rock-pigeon  of  India  (C.  intermedia  of  Strickland) 
has  been  more  generally  accepted  as  a  distinct  species.  It  differs 
chiefly  in  the  croup  being  blue  instead  of  snow-white;  but  as  Mr. 
Blyth  informs  me,  the  tint  varies,  being  sometimes  albescent. 
When  this  form  is  domesticated  chequered  birds  appear,  just  as 
occurs  in  Europe  with  the  truly  wild  C.  livia.  Moreover  we  shall 
immediately  have  proof  that  the  blue  and  white  croup  is  a  highly 
variable  character;  and  Bechstein  "  asserts  that  \Wth  dovecot-pig- 
eons in  Germany  this  is  the  most  variable  of  all  the  characters  of 
the  plumage.  Hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  C.  intermedia  can- 
not be  ranked  as  specifically  distinct  from  C  livia. 

In  Madeira  there  is  a  rock-pigeon  which  a  few  ornithologists 
have  suspected  to  be  distinct  from  C.  livia.  I  have  examined  nu- 
merous specimens  collected  by  Mr.  E.  V.  Hareourt  and  Mr.  Mason. 
They  are  rather  smaller  than  the  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland 
Islands,  and  their  beaks  are  plainly  thinner,  but  the  thickness  of 
the  beak  varied  in  the  several  specimens.  In  plumage  there  is 
remarkable  diversity;  some  specimens  are  identical  in  every  feather 
(I  speak  after  actual  comparison)  with  the  rock-pigeon  of  the 
Shetland  Islands:  others  are  chequered,  like  C  affinis  from  the 
cliffs  of  England,  but  generally  to  a  greater  degree,  being  almost 
black  over  the  whole  back;  others  are  identical  with  the  so-called 
C.  intermedia  of  India  in  the  degree  of  blueness  of  the  croup; 
whilst  others  have  this  part  very  pale  or  very  dark  blue,  and  are 
likewise  chequered.  So  much  variability  raises  a  strong  suspicion 
that  these  birds  are  domestic  pigeons  which  have  become  feral. 

From  these  facts  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  C.  livia,  affiniSy 
intermedia,  and  the  forms  marked  with  an  interrogation  by  Bona- 

"  '  Coup   d'oeil   sur   I'Orflre   des  ^*  '  Naturfreschiohte.      Deiitsch- 

Pisreons,'       '  Comptes       Rendus,'        lands,'  Band  iv.  1795,  s.  14. 
1854-55. 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


191 


King   at   Hythe 

with  young  wild 

then   they   have 

asserts   that   lie 


parte  ought  all  to  be  included  under  a  single  species.  But  it  is 
quite  immaterial  whether  or  not  they  are  thus  ranked,  and 
whether  some  one  of  these  forms  or  all  are  the  jjrogenitors  of  the 
various  domestic  kinds,  as  far  as  any  light  can  thus  be  thrown  on 
the  diflferences  between  the  more  strongly-marked  races.  That  com- 
mon dovecot-pigeons,  which  are  kept  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
are  descended  from  one  or  from  several  of  the  above-mentioned 
wild  varieties  of  C.  livia,  no  one  who  compares  them  will  doubt. 
But  before  making  a  few  remarks  on  dovecot-pigeons,  it  should  be 
stated  that  the  wild  rock-pigeon  has  been  found  easy  to  tame  in 
several  countries.  We  have  seen  that  Colonel 
stocked  his  dovecot  more  than  twenty  years  ago 
birds  taken  at  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  since 
greatly  multiplied.  The  accurate  Macgillivray  ' 
completely  tamed  a  wild  rock-pigeon  in  the  Hebrides;  and  several 
accounts  are  on  record  of  these  pigeons  having  bred  in  dovecots 
in  the  Shetland  Islands.  In  India,  as  Captain  Hutton  informs  me, 
the  wild  rock-pigeon  is  easily  tamed,  and  breeds  readily  with  the 
domestic  kind ;  and  Mr.  Blyth  ^'^  asserts  that  wild  birds  come  fre- 
quently to  the  dovecots  and  mingle  freely  with  their  inhabitants. 
In  the  ancient  '  Ayeen  Akbery  '  it  is  written  that,  if  a  few  wild 
pigeons  be  taken,  "  they  are  speedily  joined  by  a  thousand  others 
of  their  kind." 

Dovecot-pigeons  are  those  which  are  kept  in  dovecots  in  a 
semi-domesticated  state;  for  no  special  care  is  taken  of  them,  and 
they  procure  their  own  food,  except  during  the  severest  weather. 
In  England,  and,  judging  from  MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie's  work,  in 
France,  the  common  dovecot-pigeon  exactly  resembles  the  cheq- 
uered variety  of  C.  licia :  but  I  have  seen  dovecots  brought  from 
Yorkshire  without  any  trace  of  chequering,  like  the  wild  rock- 
pigeon  of  the  Shetland*^  Islands.  The  chequered  dovecots  from  the 
Orknev  Islands,  after  having  been  domesticated  by  Colonel  King 
for  more  than  twenty  years",  diflfered  slightly  from  each  other  in 
the  darkness  of  their 'plumage  and  in  the  thickness  of  their  beaks; 
the  thinnest  beak  being  rather  thicker  than  the  thickest  one  in 
the  Madeira  birds.  In  Germany,  according  to  Bechstein,  the  com- 
mon dovecot-pigeon  is  not  chequered.  In  India  they  often  become 
chequered,  and  sometimes  pied  with  white:  the  croup  also,  as  I 
informed   by   Mr.   Blvth,   becomes   nearly   white.     1   have   — 


am 


re- 
ceived from  Sir  J.  Brooke  some  dovecot-pigeons,  winch  originally 
came  from  the  S.  Natunas  Islands  in  the  ]Malay  Archipelago,  and 


15  '  History  of  British  Birds,' 
vol.  i.  pp.  275-284.  Mr.  Andrew 
Duncan  tamed  a  rock-pig:eon  in 
the  Shetland  Islands.  Mr.  James 
Barclay,  and  Mr.  Smith  of  Uyea 
Sound,  both  say  that  the  wild 
rock-pij^eon  can  be  easily  tamed; 
and  the  former  gentleman  asserts 
that  the  tamed  l)irds  1)reed  four 
times  a  year.  Dr.  Lawrence  Ed- 
mondstone    informs    me    that    a 


wild  rock-pisjeon  cnnie  and  sot- 
tied  in  his  dovecot  in  Balta 
Sound  in  the  Shetland  Islands, 
and  bred  with  his  piiroons;  he  has 
also  siven  me  f)tlu'r  instances 
the  wild  rock-pigeon  liaving 
taken  young  and  breeding  in 
tivity.'  ,,  - 

16  '  Annals  and  Mag.  or 
History,'  vol.  xix.  1847,  p. 
and  vol.   for  1857,   p.  512. 


of 
heon 

cap- 
Nat. 

103, 


192  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  IV. 

which  had  been  crossed  with  the  Singapore  dovecots:  they  were 
small  and  the  darkest  variet}^  was  extremely  like  the  dark  cheq- 
uered variety  with  a  blue  croup  from  Madeira;  but  the  beak  was 
not  so  thin,  though  decidedly  thinner  than  in  the  rock-pigeon 
from  the  Shetland  Islands.  A  dovecot-pigeon  sent  to  me  by  Mr. 
Swinhoe  from  Foochow,  in  China,  was  likewise  rather  small,  but 
differed  in  no  other  respect.  I  have  also  received  through  the 
kindness  of  Dr.  Daniell,  four  living  dovecot-pigeons  from  Sierra 
Leone;  ^'  these  were  fully  as  large  as  the  Shetland  rock-pigeon, 
with  even  bulkier  bodies.  In  plumage  some  of  them  were  iden- 
tical with  the  Shetland  rock-pigeon,  but  with  the  metallic  tints 
apparently  rather  more  brilliant ;  others  had  a  blue  croup,  and 
resembled  the  chequered  variety  of  C.  intermedia  of  India;  and 
some  were  so  much  chequered  as  to  be  nearly  black.  In  these 
four  birds  the  beak  differed  slightly  in  length,  but  in  all  it  was  de- 
cidedly shorter,  more  massive,  and  stronger  tlian  in  the  wild  rock- 
pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands,  or  in  the  English  dovecot. 
When  the  beaks  of  these  African  pigeons  were  compared  with  the 
thinnest  beaks  of  the  wild  Madeira  specimens,  the  contrast  was 
great:  the  former  being  fully  one-third  thicker  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion than  the  latter;  so  that  anv  one  at  lirst  would  have  felt  in- 
clined  to  rank  tliese  birds  as  specifically  distinct;  yet  so  perfectly 
graduated  a  series  could  be  formed  between  the  above-mentioned 
varieties,  that  it  was  obviously  impossible  to  separate  them. 

To  sum  up:  the  wild  Columha  livia,  including  under  this 
name  C.  affinis,  intermedia,  and  the  other  still  more  closely- 
afRned  geographical  races,  has  a  vast  range  from  the 
southern  coast  of  N^orway  and  the  Faroe  Islands  to  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  to  Maderia  and  the  Canary  Islands,  to 
Abyssinia,  India,  and  Japan.  It  varies  greatly  in  plumage, 
being  in  many  cases  chequered  with  black,  and  having  either 
a  white  or  blue  croup  or  loins;  it  varies  also  slightly  in  the 
size  of  the  beak  and  body.  Dovecot-pigeons,  which  no  one 
disputes  are  descended  from  one  or  more  of  the  above  wild 
forms,  present  a  similar  but  greater  range  of  variation  in 
plumage,  in  the  size  of  the  body,  and  in  the  length  and  thick- 
ness of  the  beak.  There  seems  to  be  some  relation  between 
the  croup  being  blue  or  white,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
country  inhabited  by  both  wild  and  dovecot  pigeons;  for 
nearly  all  the  dovecot-pigeons  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe 
have  a  white  croup,  like  that  of  the  wild  European  rock- 

"  Domestic  pigeons  of  tlie  com-  Guinea  '     (p.     21")).     published    in 

mon  kind  are  mentioned  :is  being  1746;  tliey  are  said,  in  accordance 

pretty  numerous  in  .Tolin  Barbut's  wirli   tlie  name  wliich  they   bear, 

'  Description     of     the     Coast     of  to  have  been  imported. 


>^ 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR   PARENTAGE.  I93 

pigeon;  and  nearly  all  the  dovecot-pigeons  of  India  have  a 
blue  croup  like  that  of  the  wild  C.  intermedia  of  India.  As 
in  various  countries  the  wild  rock-pigeon  has  been  found  easy 
to  tame,  it  seems  extremely  probable  that  the  dovecot-pigeons 
throughout  the  world  are  the  descendants  of  at  least  two  and 
perhaps  more  wild  stocks;  but  these,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
cannot  be  ranked  as  specifically  distinct. 

With  respect  to  the  variation  of  C.  livia,  we  may  without 
fear  of  contradiction  go  one  step  further.  Those  pigeon- 
fanciers  who  believe  that  all  the  chief  races,  such  as  Carriers, 
Pouters,  Fantails,  e^c,  are  descended  from  distinct  aboriginal 
stocks,  yet  admit  that  the  so-called  toy-pigeons,  which  differ 
from  the  rock-pigeon  in  little  except  colour,  are  descended 
from  this  bird.  By  toy-pigeons  are  meant  such  birds  as 
Spots,  ISTuns,  Helmets,  Swallows,  Priests,  Monks,  Porcelains, 
Swabians,  Archangels,  Breasts,  Shields,  and  others  in  Europe, 
and  many  others  in  India.  It  would  indeed  be  as  puerile  to 
suppose  that  all  these  birds  are  descended  from  so  many  dis- 
tinct wild  stocks  as  to  suppose  this  to  be  the  case  with  the 
many  varieties  of  the  gooseberry,  heartease,  or  dahlia.  Yet 
these  kinds  all  breed  true,  and  many  of  them  include  sub- 
varieties  which  likewise  transmit  their  character  truly. 
They  differ  greatly  from  each  other  and  from  the  rock-pigeon 
in  plumage,  slightly  in  size  and  proportions  of  body,  in  size 
of  feet,  and  in  the  length  and  thickness  of  their  beaks.  They 
differ  from  each  other  in  these  respects  more  than  do  dove- 
cot-pigeons. Although  we  may  safelj'^  admit  that  dovecot- 
pigeons,  which  vary  slightly,  and  that  toy-pigeons,  which 
vary  in  a  greater  degree  in  accordance  with  their  more  highly- 
domesticated  condition,  are  descended  from  C.  livia,  includ- 
ing under  this  name  the  above-enumerated  wild  geographical 
races;  yet  the  question  becomes  far  more  difficult  when  we 
consider  the  eleven  principal  races,  most  of  M'liich  have  been 
profoundly  modified.  It  can,  however,  be  shown,  by  indirect 
evidence  of  a  perfectly  conclusive  nature,  that  these  principal 
races  are  not  descended  from  so  many  wild  stocks;  and  if  this 
be  once  admitted,  few  will  dispute  that  they  are  descend- 
ants of  C.  livia  which  agrees  wdth  them  so  closely  in  habits 
and  in  most  characters,  which  varies  in  a  state  of  nature,  and 
which   has   certainly   undergone   a    considerable    amount   of 


194  DOMESTIC   PIGEOXS.  Chap.  VI. 

variation,  as  in  the  toy-pigeons.  We  shall  moreover  present- 
ly see  how  eminently  favourable  circumstances  have  been  for 
a  great  amount  of  modification  in  the  more  carefully  tended 
breeds. 

The  reasons  for  concluding  that  the  several  principal  races 
are  not  descended  from  so  many  aboriginal  and  unknown 
stocks  may  be  grouped  under  the  following  six  heads : — First- 
ly, if  the  eleven  chief  races  have  not  arisen  from  the  variation 
of  some  one  species,  together  with  its  geographical  races,  they 
must  be  descended  from  several  extremely  distinct  aboriginal 
species ;  for  no  amount  of  crossing  between  only  six  or  seven 
wild  forms  could  produce  races  so  distinct  as  Pouters,  Car- 
riers, Runts,  Fantails,  Turbits,  Short-faced  Tumblers,  Jaco- 
bins, and  Trumpeters.  How  could  crossing  produce,  for  in- 
stance, a  Pouter  or  a  Fantail,  unless  the  two  supposed  abo- 
riginal parents  possessed  the  remarkable  characters  of  these 
breeds?  I  am  aware  that  some  naturalists,  following  Pallas, 
believe  that  crossing  gives  a  strong  tendency  to  variation,  in- 
dependently of  the  characters  inherited  from  either  parent. 
They  believe  that  it  would  be  easier  to  raise  a  Pouter  or  Fan- 
tail  pigeon  from  crossing  two  distinct  species,  neither  of 
which  possessed  the  characters  of  these  races,  than  from  any 
single  species.  I  can  find  few  facts  in  support  of  this  doc- 
trine, and  believe  it  only  to  a  limited  degree;  but  in  a  future 
•chapter  I  shall  have  to  recur  to  this  subject.  For  our  present 
purpose  the  point  is  not  material.  The  question  which  con- 
<3erns  us  is,  whether  or  not  many  new  and  important  charac- 
ters have  arisen  since  man  first  domesticated  the  pigeon.  On 
the  ordinary  view,  variability  is  due  to  changed  conditions  of 
life;  on  the  Pallasian  doctrine,  variability,  or  the  appearance 
of  new  characters,  is  due  to  some  mysterious  effect  from  the 
•crossing  of  two  species,  neither  of  which  possesses  the  charac- 
ters in  question.  In  some  few  instances  it  is  possible  that 
w^ell-marked  races  may  have  been  formed  by  crossing ;  for  in- 
stance, a  Barb  might  perhaps  be  formed  by  a  cross  between  a 
long-beaked  Carrier,  having  large  eye-wattles,  and  some  short- 
beaked  pigeon.  That  many  races  have  been  in  some  degree 
modified  by  crossing,  and  that  certain  varieties  which  are  dis- 
tinguished only  by  peculiar  tints  have  arisen  from  crosses 
between  differently-coloured  varieties,  is  almost  certain.     On 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  195 

the  doctrine,  therefore,  that  the  chief  races  owe  their  differ- 
ences to  their  descent  from  distinct  species,  we  must  admit 
that  at  least  eight  or  nine,  or  more  probably  a  dozen  species, 
all  having  the  same  habit  of  breeding  and  roosting  on  rocks 
and  living  in  society,  either  now  exist  somewhere,  or  formerly 
existed,  but  have  become  extinct  as  wild  birds.  Considering 
how  carefully  wild  pigeons  have  been  collected  throughout 
the  world,  and  what  conspicuous  birds  they  are,  especially 
when  frequenting  rocks,  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  eight 
or  nine  species,  which  were  long  ago  domesticated  and  there- 
fore must  have  inhabited  some  anciently  known  country, 
should  still  exist  in  the  wild  state  and  be  unknowai  to  orni- 
thologists. 

The  hypothesis  that  such  species  formerly  existed,  but 
have  become  extinct,  is  in  some  slight  degree  more  probable. 
But  the  extinction  of  so  many  species  within  the  historical 
period  is  a  bold  hypothesis,  seeing  how  little  influence  man 
has  had  in  exterminating  the  common  rock-pigeon,  which 
agrees  in  all  its  habits  of  life  with  the  domestic  races.  The 
C.  livia  now  exists  and  flourishes  on  the  small  northern  is- 
lands of  Faroe,  on  many  islands  off  the  coast  of  Scotland,  on 
Sardinia,  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the 
centre  of  India.  Fanciers  have  sometimes  imagined  that 
the  several  supposed  parent-species  were  originally  confined 
to  small  islands,  and  thus  might  readily  have  been  extermi- 
nated; but  the  facts  just  given  do  not  favour  the  probability 
of  their  extinction,  even  on  small  islands.  I^or  is  it  probable, 
from  what  is  known  of  the  distribution  of  birds,  that  the 
islands  near  Europe  should  have  been  inhabited  by  peculiar 
species  of  pigeons;  and  if  we  assume  that  distant  oceanic 
islands  were  the  homes  of  the  supposed  parent-species,  we 
must  remember  that  ancient  voyages  were  tediously  slow,  and 
that  ships  were  then  ill-provided  with  fresh  food,  so  that  it 
would  not  have  been  easy  to  bring  home  living  birds.  I  have 
said  ancient  voyages,  for  nearly  all  the  races  of  the  jngcon 
were  known  before  the  year  1600,  so  that  the  supposed  wild 
species  must  have  been  captured  and  domesticated  before  that 
date. 

Secondly. — The  doctrine  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are 
descended  from  several  aboriginal  species,  implies  that  several 
14 


196 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS. 


Chap.  VI. 


species  were  formerly  so  thoroughly  domesticated  as  to  breed 
readily  when  confined.  Although  it  is  easy  to  tame  most 
wild  birds,  experience  shows  us  that  it  is  diificult  to  get  them 
to  breed  freely  under  confinement;  although  it  must  be 
owned  that  this  is  less  difficult  with  pigeons  than  with  most 
other  birds.  During  the  last  two  or  three  hundred  years, 
many  birds  have  been  kept  in  aviaries,  but  hardly  one  has  been 
added  to  our  list  of  thoroughly  reclaimed  species :  yet  on  the 
above  doctrine  we  must  admit  that  in  ancient  times  nearly  a 
dozen  kinds  of  pigeons,  now  unknown  in  the  wild  state,  w^ere 
thoroughly  domesticated. 

Thirdly. — Most  of  our  domesticated  animals  have  run 
wild  in  various  parts  of  the  world;  but  birds,  owing  ap- 
parently to  their  partial  loss  of  the  power  of  flight,  less  often 
than  quadrupeds.  Xevertheless  I  have  met  with  accounts 
showing  that  the  common  fowl  has  become  feral  in  South 
America  and  perhaps  in  West  Africa,  and  on  several  islands : 
the  turkey  was  at  one  time  almost  feral  on  the  banks  of  the 
Parana;  and  the  Guinea-fowl  has  become  perfectly  wild  at 
Ascension  and  in  Jamaica.  In  this  latter  island  the  peacock, 
also,  "  has  become  a  maroon  bird."  The  common  duck 
w^.xiders  from  its  home  and  becomes  almost  wild  in  jSTorfolk. 
Hybrids  between  the  common  and  musk-duck  which  have  be- 
comes wild  have  been  shot  in  ]^orth  America,  Belgium,  and 
near  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  goose  is  said  to  have  run  wild 
in  La  Plata.  The  common  dovecot-pigeon  has  become  wild 
at  Juan  Fernandez,  Norfolk  Island,  Ascension,  probably  at 
Madeira,  on  the  shores  of  Scotland,  and,  as  is  asserted,  on 
the  banlvs  of  the  Hudson  in  North  America.^^     But  how  dif- 


1^  With  respect  to  feral  pi.sreons 
— for  Juan  Fernandez,  see  Bertero 
in  '  Anna!,  des  So.  Nat.,'  torn. 
xxi.  p.  351.  For  Norfolk  Islands, 
set'  Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon  in  the  'Dove- 
cote,' 1851,  p.  14,  on  the  anthority 
of  Mr.  Gonld.  For  Ascpn?:ion  T 
rely  on  MS.  information  civen  me 
by  Mr.  Layard.  For  the  banks 
of  the  Hndson,  see  Blvth  in  '  An- 
nals of  Nat.  Hist..'  vol.  xx.,  1S57, 
p.  nil.  For  Scotland,  .s-'e  Mac- 
gillivray,  '  British  Birds,'  vol.  i. 
p.  275;  also  Thompson's  '  Nat. 
Hist,  of  Ireland,  Birds,'  vol.  ii. 
p.  11.  For  ducks,  see  Rev.  E.  S. 
Dixon,       '  Ornamental      Poultry,' 


1847.  p.  122.  For  the  feral  hy- 
brids of  the  common  and  musk- 
ducks,  sec  Audubon's  '  American 
Ornitholo,s:y,'  and  Selys-Long- 
champs  '  Hybrides  dans'  la  Fa- 
mine des  Anatides.'  For  the 
goose,  Isidore  Geoffroy  St.-Hil- 
aire,  '  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.,  torn.  iii. 
p.  498.  For  g'linea-fowls.  s"e 
Gosse's  '  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in 
Jamaica,'  p.  124;  and  his  '  Birds 
of  Jamaica,'  for  fuller  particu- 
lars. I  saw  the  wild  guinea-fowl 
in  Ascension.  For  the  peacock, 
see  '  A  Week  at  Port  Royal,'  by 
a  competent  authoritv,  Mr.  R. 
Hill,    p.    42.      For    the    Turkey    I 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  197 

ferent  is  the  case,  when  we  turn  to  the  eleven  chief  domestic 
races  of  the  pigeon,  which  are  supposed  by  some  authors 
to  be  descended  from  so  many  distinct  species!  no  one  has 
ever  pretended  that  any  one  of  these  races  has  been  found  wild 
in  any  quarter  of  the  world;  yet  they  have  been  transported 
to  all  countries,  and  some  of  them  must  have  been  carried 
back  to  their  native  homes.  On  the  view  that  all  the  races  are 
the  product  of  variation,  we  can  understand  why  they  have 
not  become  feral,  for  the  great  amount  of  modification  whicli 
they  have  undergone  shows  how  long  and  how  thoroughly 
they  have  been  domesticated;  and  this  would  unfit  them  for 
a  wild  life. 

Fourthly. — If  it  be  assumed  that  the  characteristic  diflFer- 
ences  between  the  various  domestic  races  are  due  to  descent 
from  several  aboriginal  species,  we  must  conclude  that  man 
chose  for  domestication  in  ancient  times,  either  intentionally 
or  by  chance,  a  most  abnormal  set  of  pigeons ;  for  that  species 
resembling  such  birds  as  Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  Barbs, 
Short-faced  Tumblers,  Turbits,  &c.,  would  be  in  the  highest 
degree  abnormal,  as  compared  with  all  the  existing  members 
of  the  great  pigeon  family,  cannot  be  doubted.  Thus  we 
should  have  to  believe  that  man  not  only  formerly  succeeded 
in  thoroughly  domesticating  several  highly  abnormal  species,, 
but  that  these  same  species  have  since  all  become  extinct,  or 
are  at  least  now  unknown.  This  double  accident  is  so  ex- 
tremely improbable  that  the  assumed  existence  of  so  many 
abnormal  species  would  require  to  be  supported  by  the  strong- 
est evidence.  On  the  other  hand,  if  all  the  races  are  de- 
scended from  C.  livia,  we  can  understand,  as  will  hereafter 
be  more  fully  explained,  how  any  slight  deviation  in  structure 
which  first  appeared  would  continually  be  augmented  by  the 
preservation  of  the  most  strongly  marked  individuals;  and  as^ 
the  power  of  selection  would  be  applied  according  to  man's 
fancy,  and  not  for  the  bird's  own  good,  the  accumulated 
amount  of  deviation  would  certainly  be  of  an  abnormal  na- 
ture in  comparison  with  the  structure  of  pigeons  living  in  a 
state  of  nature. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  remarkable  fact  that   the 

rely  on  oral  information:  I  ascer-        will    give    the    reference    In    the- 
tai'ned  that  they  were  not  Curas-        next  chapter, 
sows.      With   respect   to   fowls   I 


198 


DOMESTIC  PIGEONS. 


Chap.  VI. 


characteristic  differences  between  the  chief  domestic  races 
are  eminently  variable;  we  see  this  plainly  in  the  great  dif- 
ference in  the  number  of  the  tail-feathers  in  the  Fantail,  in 
the  development  of  the  crop  in  Pouters,  in  the  length  of  the 
beak  in  Tumblers,  in  the  state  of  the  wattle  in  Carriers,  &c. 
If  these  characters  are  the  result  of  successive  variations 
added  together  by  selection,  we  can  understand  why  they 
should  be  so  variable :  for  these  are  the  very  parts  which 
have  varied  since  the  domestication  of  the  pigeon,  and  there- 
fore w^ould  be  likely  still  to  vary;  these  variations  moreover 
have  been  recently,  and  are  still  being  accumulated  by  man's 
selection;  therefore  they  have  not  as  yet  become  firmly  fixed. 
Fifthly. — All  the  domestic  races  pair  readily  together, 
and,  what  is  equally  important,  their  mongrel  offspring  are 
perfectly  fertile.  To  ascertain  this  fact  I  made  many  ex- 
periments, which  are  given  in  the  note  below;  and  recently 
Mr,  Tegetmeier  has  made  similar  experiments  with  the  same 
result.^*  The  accurate  Neumeister  asserts  that  when  dove- 
cots are  crossed  with  pigeons  of  any  other  breed,  the  mon- 


"  I  have  drawn  out  a  long 
table  of  the  various  crosses  made 
"by  fanciers  between  the  several 
domestic  breeds,  but  I  do  not 
think  it  worth  while  pulilishing. 
I  have  myself  made  for  this  spe- 
cial purpose  many  crosses,  and 
iiU  were  perfectly  fertile.  I  have 
united  in  one  bird  five  of  the 
most  distinct  races,  and  with  pa- 
tience I  might  undoubtedly  have 
thus  united  all.  The  case  of  five 
distinct  breeds  being  blended  to- 
gether with  unimpaired  fertility 
is  important,  because  Gartner  has 
shown  that  it  is  a  very  general, 
though  not,  as  he  thought,  uni- 
versal rule,  that  complex  crosses 
between  several  species  are  ex- 
cessively sterile.  I  have  met 
with  only  two  or  three  cases  of 
reported  sterility  in  the  offspring 
of  certain  races  when  crossed. 
Pistor  ('  Das  Ganze  der  Feldtau- 
benzucht,'  18.31,  s.  15)  asserts 
that  the  mongrels  from  Barbs 
and  Fantails  are  sterile:  I  have 
proved  this  to  he  erroneous,  not 
only  by  crossing  those  hy))rids 
with  several  other  hybrids  of  the 
same  parentage,  but  by  the  more 
severe  test  of  pairing  brother  and 
sister   hybrids   inter  sc,   and   they 


were  perfecthj  fertile.  Temminck 
has  stated  ('  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  des 
Pigeons,'  tom.  i.  p.  197)  that  the 
Turl)it  or  Owl  will  not  cross  read- 
ily with  other  breeds:  but  myTur- 
bits  crossed,  when  left  free  with 
Almond  Tumblers  and  with  Trum- 
peters; the  same  thing  has  oc- 
curred (Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  '  The 
Dovecot,'  p.  107)  between  Turbits 
and  Dovecots  and  Nuns.  I  have 
crossed  Turbits  with  Barbs,  as 
has  M.  Boitard  (p.  34),  who  says 
the  hybrids  were  very  fertile. 
Hybrids  from  a  Turbit  'and  Fan- 
tail  have  been  known  to  breed 
inter  sc  (Riedel.  '  Taubenzucht,'  s. 
2.'),  and  Bechstein,  '  Naturgesch. 
Deutsch.,'  B.  iv.  s.  44).  Turbits 
(Riedel,  s.  26)  have  been  crossed 
with  Pouters  and  with  .Tacobins, 
and  with  a  hyl)rid  Jacobin-trum- 
peter (Riedel.  s.  27).  The  latter 
author  has,  however,  made  some 
A-ague  statements  (s.  22)  on  the 
sterility  of  Turbits  when  crossed 
with  certain  other  crossed  breeds. 
But  I  have  little  doubt  that  the 
Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon's  explanation  of 
such  statements  is  correct,  viz. 
that  individual  birds  both  with 
Turbits  and  other  breeds  are  oc- 
casionally sterile. 


Chap.  VI. 


THEIR  PARENTAGE. 


lOD 


grels  are  extremely  fertile  and  hardy.*"  MM.  Boitard  and 
Corbie''  affirm,  after  their  great  experience,  that  the  more 
distinct  the  breeds  are  which  are  crossed,  the  more  productive 
are  their  mongrel  offspring.  I  admit  that  the  doctrine  first 
broached  by  Pallas  is  highly  probable,  if  not  actually  proved, 
namely,  that  closely  allied  species,  which  in  a  state  of  nature 
or  when  first  captured  would  have  been  in  some  degree  sterile 
if  crossed,  lose  this  sterility  after  a  long  course  of  domesti- 
cation; yet  when  w^e  consider  the  great  difference  between 
such  races  as  Pouters,  Carriers,  Runts,  Fantails,  Turbits, 
Tumblers,  &c.,  the  fact  of  their  perfect,  or  even  increased, 
fertility  when  intercrossed  in  the  most  complicated  manner 
becomes  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  their  having  all 
descended  from  a  single  species.  This  argument  is  rendered 
much  stronger  when  we  hear  (I  append  in  a  note"  all  the 


20  '  Das  Ganze  der  Tauben- 
zucht,'  s.  IS. 

21  '  Les  Pigeons,'   &c.,   p.   35. 

--  Domestic  pigeons  pair  read- 
ily witti  tlie  allied  C.  oenas  (Becli- 
stein,  'Naturgescli.  Deutsclilands, 
B.  iv.  s.  3);  and  Mr.  Brent  has 
made  the  same  cross  several 
times  in  England,  but  the  young 
were  very  apt  to  die  at  about 
ten  days  old;  one  hybrid  vs'hich 
he  reared  (from  C.  crnns  and  a 
male  Antwerp  Carrier)  paired 
with  a  Dragon,  but  never  laid 
eggs.  Bechstein  furtlier  states 
(s.  26)  tliat  the  domestic  pigeon 
will  cross  with  C.  paJumbus,  Tur- 
tur  risoria  and  T.  vulgaris,  but 
nothing  is  said  of  the  fertility  of 
the  hybrids,  and  tliis  would  have 
been  mentioned  had  the  fact  been 
ascertained.  In  the  Zoological 
Gardens  (MS.  report  to  me  from 
Mr.  James  Hunt)  a  male  hybrid 
from  Turtur  vulgaris  and  a  do- 
mestic pigeon  "  paired  with  sev- 
eral different  species  of  pigeons 
and  doves,  but  none  of  the  eggs 
were  good."  Hybrids  from  G. 
(rnas  and  gym)ioiththuhnos  were 
sterile.  In  Loudon's  '  Mag.  of 
Nat.  Hist..'  vol.  vii.,  18.34.  p.  1.54, 
it  is  said  that  a  male  hyl)rid  (from 
Turtur  vulgaris  male,"  and  the 
cream-coloui-ed  T.  risoria  female) 
paired  during  two  years  with  a 
female  T.  risoria,  and  the  latter 
laid  many  eggs,  but  all  were  ster- 
ile. MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie 
'  Les  Pigeons,'  p.  235)  state  that 


the  hybrids  from  these  two  tur- 
tle-doves are  invariably  sterile 
both  inter  se  and  with  either  pure 
parent.  The  experiment  was 
tried  by  M.  Corbie  "  avec  une 
espece  d'obstination;  "  and  like- 
wise by  M.  Mauduyt,  and  by  M. 
Vieillot.  Temminck  also  found 
the  hybrids  from  these  two  spe- 
cies quite  barren.  Therefore, 
when  Bechstein  ('  Naturgesch. 
Deutschlands  Vtigel,'  B.  4,  s.  101) 
assei'ts  that  the  hybrids  from 
these  two  turtle-doves  propagate 
inter  se  equally  well  with  pure 
species,  and  when  a  writer  in  the 
'  Field  '  newspaper  (in  a  letter 
dated  Nov.  lOth,  1858)  makes  a 
similar  assertion,  it  would  api)ear 
that  there  must  be  some  mistake; 
tliough  what  the  mistake  is  I 
know  not,  as  Bechstein  at  least 
must  have  known  the  white  va- 
rietij  of  T.  risoria:  it  would  be  an 
unparalleled  fact  if  the  same  two 
species  sometimes  produced  i.r- 
trrmeJij  fertile,  and  souietiuu's  cr- 
tremely  barren,  olfspriug.  In  the 
MS.  report  from  the  Zoologl<'al 
Gardens  it  is  said  that  hybrids 
from  Turtur  vulgaris  and  suratrti- 
sis,  and  from  T.  vulgaris  and  A'c- 
topistes  migratorius,  were  sterile. 
Two  of  tlie  latter  male  liyltrids 
paired  with  their  i)ure  parents, 
viz.  Turtur  vulgaris  and  the  l']<'to- 
pistes.  and  likewise  with'/',  risoria 
and  with  Columha  o'uas,  and  many 
eggs  were  produced,  but  all  were 
barren.     At   Paris,    hybrids   have 


;200  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

■cases  which  I  have  collected)  that  hardly  a  single  well-ascer- 
tained instance  is  known  of  hybrids  between  two  true  species 
of  pigeons  being  fertile,  mter  se,  or  even  when  crossed  with 
one  of  their  j^nre  parents. 

Sixthli). — Excluding  certain  important  characteristic  dif- 
ferences, the  chief  races  agree  most  closely  both  with  each 
other  and  with  C.  livia  in  all  other  respects.  As  previously 
observed,  all  are  eminently  sociable;  all  dislike  to  perch  or 
Toost,  and  refuse  to  build  in  trees;  all  lay  two  eggs,  and  this 
is  not  a  universal  rule  with  the  Columbidcie ;  all,  as  far  as  I 
■can  hear,  require  the  same  time  for  hatching  their  eggs; 
all  can  endure  the  same  great  range  of  climate ;  ail  prefer  the 
same  food,  and  are  passionately  fond  of  salt ;  all  exhibit  (with 
the  asserted  exception  of  the  Finnikin  and  Turner,  which  do 
not  differ  much  in  any  other  character)  the  same  peculiar 
.gestures  when  courting  the  females;  and  all  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Trumpeters  and  Laughers,  which  likewise  do  not 
differ  much  in  any  other  character)  coo  in  the  same  peculiar 
manner,  unlike  the  voice  of  any  other  wild  pigeon.  All  the 
■coloured  breeds  display  the  same  peculiar  metallic  tints  on 
the  breast,  a  character  far  from  general  with  pigeons.  Each 
race  presents  nearly  the  same  range  of  variation  in  colour; 
and  in  most  of  the  races  we  have  the  same  singular  correla- 
tion between  the  development  of  down  in  the  young  and  the 
future  colour  of  plumage.  All  have  the  proportional  length 
of  their  toes,  and  of  their  primary  wing-feathers,  nearly  the 
same,— characters  which  are  apt  to  differ  in  the  several  mem- 
hers  of  the  Columbidte.  In  those  races  which  present  some 
remarkable  deviation  of  structure,  such  as  in  the  tail  of  Ean- 
tails,  crop  of  Pouters,  beak  of  Carriers  and  Tumblers,  &c., 
the  other  parts  remain  nearly  unaltered.  ISJ^ow  every  natural- 
ist will  admit  that  it  would  be  scarcely  possible  to  pick  out 
a  dozen  natural  species  in  any  family  which  should  agree 
•closely  in  habits  and  in  general  structure,  and  yet  should 
differ  greatly  in  a  few  characters  alone.  This  fact  is  ex- 
been  raised  (Isid.  Geoffroy  Saint-  coronnta  and  victorlw  produced  a 
Hilaire.  '  Hist.  Nat.  Generale,'  hybrid  which  paired  with  the 
torn.  iii.  p.  180)  from  Turtur  auri-  pure  G.  coronata,  and  laid  several 
tus  with  T.  cambaijnisis  and  with  eggs,  but  tliese  proved  barren. 
T.  suratrni^if< :  but  notliing  is  said  In  1860  Cohtmhn  gi/mnophtJinhnos 
of  their  fertility.  At  tlie  Zoologi-  and  maciilnsa  produced  hybrids  in 
cal  Gardens  of  London  the  Goura       these  same  gardens. 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR  REVERSION  IN  COLOUR.  201 

plicable  through  the  doctrine  of  natural  selection;  for  each 
successive  modification  of  structure  in  each  natural  species  i3 
preserved,  solely  because  it  is  of  service;  and  such  modifica- 
tions when  largely  accumulated  imply  a  great  change  in  the 
habits  of  life,  and  this  will  almost  certainly  lead  to  other 
changes  of  structure  throughout  the  whole  organisation.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  several  races  of  the  pigeon  have  been 
produced  by  man  through  selection  and  variation,  we  can 
readily  understand  how  it  is  that  they  should  still  all  resemble 
each  other  in  habits  and  in  those  many  characters  which  man 
has  not  cared  to  modify,  whilst  they  differ  to  so  prodigious  a 
degree  in  those  parts  which  have  struck  his  eye  or  pleased 
his  fancy. 

Besides  the  points  above  enumerated,  in  which  all  the 
domestic  races  resemble  C.  livia  and  each  other,  there  is  one 
w^hich  deserves  special  notice.  The  wild  rock-pigeon  is  of  a 
slaty-blue  colour;  the  w4ngs  are  crossed  by  two  bars;  the 
croup  varies  in  colour,  being  generally  white  in  the  pigeon 
of  Europe,  and  blue  in  that  of  India;  the  tail  has  a  black  bar 
close  to  the  end,  and  the  outer  webs  of  the  outer  tail-feathers 
are  edged  with  white,  except  near  the  tips.  These  combined 
characters  are  not  found  in  any  wild  pigeon  besides  C.  livia. 
I  have  looked  carefully  through  the  great  collections  of 
pigeons  in  the  British  Museum,  and  I  find  that  a  dark  bar 
at  the  end  of  the  tail  is  common;  that  the  white  edging  to 
the  outer  tail-feathers  is  not  rare;  but  that  the  white  croup 
is  extremely  rare,  and  the  two  black  bars  on  the  wnngs  occur 
in  no  other  pigeon,  excepting  the  alpine  C.  leuconofa  and 
C.  riipestris  of  Asia.  Xow  if  we  turn  to  the  domestic  races, 
it  is  highly  remarkable,  as  an  eminent  fancier,  Mr.  Wicking, 
observed  to  me,  that,  whenever  a  blue  bird  appears  in  any 
race,  the  wings  almost  invariably  show  the  double  black 
bars.^^  The  primary  wing-feathers'  may  be  white  or  black, 
and  the  whole  body  may  be  of  any  colour,  but  if  the  wing- 

23  There  is  one  exception  to  the  this    exception    sicrnifies    the    less 

rule,   namely,   in  a  sub-variety  of  as  the  Swallow  npproaclios  elose- 

the    Swallow    of    German    origin,  ly    in    struc^nre    to    C.    lirin.      In 

which   is   figured   by   Neumeisler,  m.-iny  snb-varieties  the  black  bnrs 

and    was    shown    to    me    by    Mr.  are    rephiced    by    bars    of    vario>is 

Wicking.      This   bird   is   blue,    but  colours.       The     figures    given     by 

has  not  the  black   wing-bars;    for  Neunu'lster  are  sufiicient  to  sliow 

our    object,    however,    in    tracing  tliat.  if  the  wings  alone  are  blue, 

the    descent    of   the    chief    races,  the  black  wiug-bars  appear. 


202 


DOMESTIC   PIGEONS. 


Chap.  VI. 


coverts  are  blue,  the  two  black  bars  are  sure  to  appear.  I 
have  myself  seen,  or  acquired  trustworthy  evidence,  as  given 
below,"  of  blue  birds  with  black  bars  on  the  wing,  with 
the  croup  either  white  or  very  pale  or  dark  blue,  with  the 
tail  having  a  terminal  black  bar,  and  with  the  outer  feathers 
externally  edged  with  white  or  very  pale  coloured,  in  the 
following  races,  which,  as  I  carefully  observed  in  each  case, 
appeared  to  be  perfectly  true:  namely,  in  Pouters,  Fantails, 
Tumblers,  Jacobins,  Turbits,  Barbs,  Carriers,  Runts  of  three 
distinct  varieties.  Trumpeters,  Swallows,  and  in  many  other 
toy-pigeons,  which  as  being  closely  allied  to  C.  livia,  are 
not  worth  enumerating.  Thus  we  see  that,  in  purely-bred 
races  of  every  kind  known  in  Europe,  blue  birds  occasionally 
appear,  having  all  the  marks  which  characterize  C.  livia, 
and  which  concur  in  no  other  wild  species.  Mr.  Blyth,  also, 
has  made  the  same  observation  with  respect  to  the  various 
domestic  races  known  in  India. 

Certain  variations  in  the  plumage  are  equally  common  in 
the  wild  C.  livia,  in  dovecot-pigeons,  and  in  all  the  most 
highly  modified  races.  Thus,  in  all,  the  croup  varies  from 
white  to  blue,  being  most  frequently  white  in  Europe,  and 


-*  I  have  observed  blue  birds 
with  all  the  above-mentioned 
marks  in  the  following  races, 
which  seemed  to  l>e  perfectly 
pure,  and  were  shown  at  various 
exliibitions.  Pouters,  with  the 
double  black  wing-bars,  with 
white  croup,  dark  bar  to  end  of 
tail,  and  white  editing  to  outer 
tail-feathers.  Turltits.  with  all 
these  same  characters.  Fantails 
with  the  same:  but  the  croup  in 
some  was  bluish  or  pure  Idue. 
Mr.  Wicking  bred  blue  Fantails 
from  two  black  birds.  Carriers 
(including  the  Ragadotten  of 
Xeumeister)  with  all  the  marks: 
two  birds  whicli  I  examined  had 
white  and  two  had  1)Iue  croups; 
the  white  edging  to  the  outer 
tail-feathers  was  not  present  in 
all.  Mr.  Corker,  a  great  breeder, 
assures  me  that,  if  lilack  carriers 
are  matched  for  many  successive 
generations,  the  offspring  become 
first  ash-coloured,  and  then  blue 
with  black  wing-bars.  Runts  of 
the  elongated  breed  had  the  same 
marks,  but  the  cronp  was  pale 
blue;   the  outer  tail-feathers   had 


white  edges.  Neumeister  figures 
are  very  rarely  blue,  but  I  have 
the  great  Florence  Runt  of  a  blue 
colour  with  black  bars.  Jacobins 
received  authentic  accounts  of  at 
least  two  instances  of  the  blue 
variety  with  black  bars  having 
appeared  in  England:  blue  Jaco- 
bins were  bred  by  Mr.  Rrent  from 
two  black  birds.  I  have  seen 
common  Tumblers,  both  Indian 
and  English,  and  Short-faced 
Tumblers,  of  a  Ijlue  colour,  with 
Idack  wing-bars,  with  the  black 
bar  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and 
with  the  outer  tail-feathers  edged 
with  white;  the  croup  in  all  was 
blue,  or  extremel.v  pale  blue, 
never  absolutely  white.  Rlue 
Barbs  and  Trumpeters  seem  to 
be  excessively  rare:  but  Neu- 
meister. who  may  be  imi)licitly 
trusted,  figures  blue  varieties  of 
both,  with  black  wing-bars.  Mr. 
Brent  informs  me  that  he  has 
seen  a  blue  Barb:  and  Mr.  H. 
AVeir.  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  once  bred  a  "silver 
(which  means  very  pale  blue) 
Barb  from  two  yellow  birds. 


Chap.  VI.         THEIR  REVERSION  IN  COLOUR.  203 

very  generally  blue  in  India."  We  have  seen  that  the  wild 
C.  livia  in  Europe,  and  dovecots  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
often  have  the  upper  wing-coverts  chequered  with  black; 
and  all  the  most  distinct  races,  when  blue,  are  occasionally 
chequered  in  precisely  the  same  manner.  Thus  I  have  se(;n 
Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  Turbits,  Tumblers  (Indian  and 
English),  Swallow^s,  Bald-pates,  and  other  toy-pigeons  blue 
and  chequered;  and  Mr.  Esquilant  has  seen  a  chequered 
Runt.  I  bred  from  two  pure  blue  Tumblers  a  chequered 
bird. 

The  facts  hitherto  given  refer  to  the  occasional  appearance 
in  pure  races  of  blue  birds  w^ith  black  wing-bars,  and  likewise 
of  blue  and  chequered  birds;  but  it  will  now  be  seen  that 
when  two  birds  belonging  to  distinct  races  are  crossed,  neither 
of  which  have,  nor  probably  have  had  during  many  genera- 
tions, a  trace  of  blue  in  their  plumage,  or  a  trace  of  wing- 
bars  and  the  other  characteristic  marks,  they  very  frequently 
produce  mongrel  offspring  of  a  blue  colour,  sometimes 
chequered,  with  black  wing-bars,  &c. ;  or  if  not  of  a  blue 
colour,  yet  with  the  several  characteristic  marks  more  or  less 
plainly  developed.  I  was  led  to  investigate  this  subject  from 
MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie '"  having  asserted  that  from  crosses 
between  certain  breeds  it  is  rare  to  get  anything  but  bisets 
or  dovecot-pigeons,  w^hich,  as  we  know,  are  blue  birds  with 
the  usual  characteristic  marks.  We  shall  hereafter  see  that 
this  subject  possesses,  independently  of  our  present  object, 
considerable  interest,  so  that  I  wall  give  the  results  of  my 
own  trials  in  full.  I  selected  for  experiment  races  which, 
when  pure,  very  seldom  produce  birds  of  a  blue  colour,  or  have 
bars  on  their  wings  and  tail. 

The  Nun  is  white,  wdth  the  head,  tail,  and  primary  wing- 
feathers  black;  it  is  a  breed  which  was  established  as  long 
ago  as  the  year  1600.     I  crossed  a  male  Nun  with  a  female 

25  Mr.    Blyth   informs    me   that  In     some     other     Indian     piirnms 

all    the    domestic    races    in    India  there  were  a   few  white  featliers 

have  the  croup   bine;   but  this  is  confined  to  the  croup,  and  I  have 

not    invariable,    for    I    possess    a  noticed  the  same  fact  in  a  carrier 

very    pale    blue    Simmali    pisreon  from    Persia.      The   Java    bantall 

with   the   croup    perfectly    white,  (imported  into  Amoy    and  thence 

sent  to  me  bv  Sir  W.  Elliot  from  sent    me)    has    a    perfectly    wUite 

Madras.      A  "slatv-blue   and   cheq-  croup. 

uered    Nakshi    pigeon    has    some  2c  '  Les  Pigeons,    &c.,  p.  ^(. 

white  feathers  on  the  croup  alone. 


204  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

• 

red  common  Tumbler,  which  latter  variety  generally  breeds 
true.  Thus  neither  parent  had  a  trace  of  blue  in  the  plum- 
age, or  of  bars  on  the  wing  and  tail.  I  should  premise  that 
common  Tumblers  are  rarely  blue  in  England.  From  the 
above  cross  I  reared  several  young:  one  was  red  over  the 
whole  back,  but  with  the  tail  as  blue  as  that  of  the  rock- 
pigeon;  the  terminal  bar,  however,  was  absent,  but  the  outer 
feathers  were  edged  with  white:  a  second  and  third  nearly 
resembled  the  first,  but  the  tail  in  both  presented  a  trace 
of  the  bar  at  the  end :  a  fourth  w^as  brownish,  and  the  wings 
showed  a  trace  of  the  double  bar:  a  fifth  was  pale  blue  over 
the  whole  breast,  back,  croup,  and  tail,  but  the  neck  and 
primary  wing-feathers  were  reddish;  the  wings  presented 
two  distinct  bars  of  a  red  colour;  the  tail  was  not  barred, 
but  the  outer  feathers  were  edged  with  white.  I  crossed  this 
last  curiously  coloured  bird  with  a  black  mongrel  of  com- 
plicated descent,  namely,  from  a  black  Barb,  a  Spot,  and 
Almond-tumbler,  so  that  the  two  young  birds  produced  from 
this  cross  included  the  blood  of  five  varieties,  none  of  which 
had  a  trace  of  blue  or  of  wing-  and  tail-bars :  one  of  the  two 
young  birds  was  brownish-black,  with  black  wing-bars;  the 
other  was  reddish-dun,  with  reddish  wing-bars,  paler  than 
the  rest  of  the  body,  with  the  croup  pale  blue,  the  tail  bluish 
with  a  trace  of  the  terminal  bar. 

Mr.  Eaton  '^  matched  two  Short-faced  Tumblers,  namely, 
a  splash  cock  and  kite  hen  (neither  of  which  are  blue  or 
barred),  and  from  the  first  nest  he  got  a  perfect  blue  bird, 
and  from  the  second  a  silver  or  pale  blue  bird,  both  of  which, 
in  accordance  with  all  analogy,  no  doubt  presented  the  usual 
characteristic  marks. 

I  crossed  two  male  black  Barbs  with  two  female  red  Spots. 
These  latter  have  the  whole  body  and  wings  white,  with  a 
spot  on  the  forehead,  the  tail  and  tail-coverts  red;  the  race 
existed  at  least  as  long  ago  as  1676,  and  now  breeds  perfectly 
true,  as  was  known  to  be  the  case  in  the  year  1735.'^  Barbs 
are  uniformly-coloured  birds,  with  rarely  even  a  trace  of  bars 
on  the  wing   or  tail;   they  are  known  to   breed  very  true. 

"  '  Treatise  on   Pigeons,'   1858,        173o.    in    J.    M.    Eaton's    edition, 
p.  145.  1852,   p.   71. 

-*  J.     Moore's     'Columbarium,' 


Chap.  YI.  THEIR  REVERSIOX  IX  COLOUR.  2U5 

The  mongrels  thus  raised  were  black  or  nearly  black,  or  dark 
or  pale  brown,  sometimes  slightly  piebald  with  white:  of  these 
birds  no  less  than  six  presented  double  wing-bars;  in  two 
the  bars  were  conspicuous  and  quite  black;  in  seven  some 
white  feathers  appeared  on  the  croup;  and  in  two  or  three 
there  was  a  trace  of  the  terminal  bar  to  the  tail,  but  in  none 
were  the  outer  tail-feathers  edged  with  white. 

I  crossed  black  Barbs  (of  two  excellent  strains)  with 
purely-bred,  snow-white  Fantails.  The  mongrels  were  gen- 
erally quite  black,  with  a  few  of  the  primary  wing  and  tail 
feathers  white:  others  were  dark  reddish-brown,  and  others 
snow-white :  none  had  a  trace  of  wing-bars  or  of  the  white 
croup.  I  then  paired  together  two  of  these  mongrels,  namely, 
a  brown  and  black  bird,  and  their  offspring  displayed  wing- 
bars,  faint,  but  of  a  darker  brown  than  the  rest  of  body.  In 
a  second  brood  from  the  same  parents  a  brown  bird  was 
produced,  with  several  white  feathers  confined  to  the  croup. 

I  crossed  a  male  dun  Dragon  belonging  to  a  family  which 
had  been  dun-coloured  without  wing-bars  during  several 
generations,  with  a  uniform  red  Barb  (bred  from  two  black 
Barbs)  ;  and  the  offspring  presented  decided  but  faint  traces 
of  wing-bars.  I  crossed  a  uniform  red  male  Runt  with  a 
White  trumpeter ;  and  the  offspring  had  a  slaty -blue  tail  with 
a  bar  at  the  end,  and  with  the  outer  feathers  edged  with 
white.  I  also  crossed  a  female  black  and  white  chequered 
Trumpeter  (of  a  different  strain  from  the  last)  with  a  male 
Almond-tumbler,  neither  of  which  exhibited  a  trace  of  blue, 
or  of  the  white  croup,  or  of  the  bar  at  end  of  tail :  nor  is  it 
probable  that  the  progenitors  of  these  two  birds  had  for 
many  generations  exhibited  any  of  these  characters,  for  I 
have  never  even  heard  of  a  blue  Trumpeter  in  this  country, 
and  my  Almond-tumbler  was  purely  bred ;  yet  the  tail  of  this 
mongrel  was  bluish,  with  a  broad  black  bar  at  the  end,  and 
the  croup  was  perfectly  white.  It  may  be  observed  in  several 
of  these  cases,  that  the  tail  first  shows  a  tendency  to  become 
by  reversion  blue;  and  this  fact  of  the  persistency  of  colour 
in  the  tail  and  tail-coverts''''  will  surprise  no  one  who  has 
attended  to  the  crossing  of  pigeons. 

29  I  could  give  nnnierous  exam-       grel,     whose     four     prrandparents 
pies;    two   will    suffice.     A    mou-       were  a  white  Turbit,  wliite  Trum- 


206  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

The  last  case  which  I  will  give  is  the  most  curious.  I 
paired  a  mongrel  female  Barb-fantail  with  a  mongrel  male 
Barb-spot;  neither  of  which  mongrels  had  the  least  blue 
about  them.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  blue  Barbs  are 
excessively  rare;  that  Spots,  as  has  been  already  stated,  were 
perfectly  characterized  in  the  year  1676,  and  breed  perfectly 
true;  this  likewise  is  the  case  with  white  Fantails,  so  much 
so  that  I  have  never  heard  of  white  Fantails  throwing  any 
other  colour.  Nevertheless  the  offspring  from  the  above  two 
mongrels  was  of  exactly  the  same  blue  tint  as  that  of  the 
wild  rock-pigeon  from  the  Shetland  Islands  over  the  whole 
back  and  wings;  the  double  black  wing-bars  were  equally 
conspicuous;  the  tail  was  exactly  alike  in  all  its  characters, 
and  the  croup  was  pure  white ;  the  head,  however,  was  tinted 
with  a  shade  of  red,  evidently  derived  from  the  Spot,  and  was 
of  a  paler  blue  than  in  the  rock-pigeon,  as  was  the  stomach. 
So  that  two  black  Barbs,  a  red  Spot,  and  a  white  Fantail,  as 
the  four  purely-bred  grandparents,  produced  a  bird  exhibiting 
the  general  blue  colour,  together  with  every  characteristic 
mark  of  the  wild  Columba  livia. 

With  respect  to  crossed  breeds  frequently  producing  blue 
birds  chequered  with  black,  and  resembling  in  all  respects 
both  the  dovecot-pigeon  and  the  chequered  w^ild  variety  of 
the  rock-pigeon,  the  statement  before  referred  to  by  MM. 
Boitard  and  Corbie  would  almost  suffice;  but  I  will  give 
three  instances  of  the  appearance  of  such  birds  from  crosses 
in  which  one  alone  of  the  parents  or  great-grandparents  was 
blue,  but  not  chequered.  I  crossed  a  male  blue  Turbit  with 
a  snow-w^hite  Trumpeter  (and  the  following  year  with  a  dark, 
leaden-brown,  Short-faced  Tumbler;  the  offspring  from  the 
first  cross  were  as  perfectly  chequered  as  any  dovecot-pigeon; 
and  from  the  second,  so  much  so  as  to  be  nearly  as  black  as 
the  most  darkly  chequered  rock-pigeon  from  Madeira.  An- 
other bird,  whose  great-grandparents  were  a  white  Trumpeter, 
a  white  Fantail,  a  white  Red-spot,  a  red  Runt,  and  a  blue 

peter,    white    Fantail.    and    blue  peter,     white     Fantail,     and     the 

Pouter,    was   white   all    over,    ex-  same  blue  Pouter,  was  pure  white 

cept   a    very   few    feathers    about  all  over,   except  the  tail  and   up- 

the  head   and   on   the  wings,   but  per  tail-coverts,   which  were  pale 

the    whole    tail    and    tail-coverts  fawn,     and    except     the    faintest 

were   dark    bluish-crrey.      Another  trace  of  double  wing-bars  of  the 

mongrel  whose  four  grandparents  same  pale  fawn  tint, 
were    a    red    Runt,    white    Trum- 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR  REVERSION  IX  COLOUR.  207 

Pouter,  was  slaty-blue  and  chequered  exactly  like  a  dovecot- 
pigeon.  I  may  here  add  a  remark  made  to  me  by  ^Mr.  Wick- 
ing',  who  has  had  more  experience  than  any  other  person  in 
England  in  breeding  pigeons  of  various  colours:  namely, 
that  when  a  blue,  or  a  blue  and  chequered  bird,  having  bhick 
wing-bars,  once  appears  in  any  race  and  is  allowed  to  breed, 
these  characters  are  so  strongly  transmitted  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  .eradicate  them. 

What,  then,  are  we  to  conclude  from  this  tendency  in  all 
the  chief  domestic  races,  both  when  purely  bred  and  more 
especially  when  intercrossed,  to  produce  offspring  of  a  blue 
colour,  with  the  same  characteristic  marks,  varying  in  the 
same  manner,  as  in  Columha  livia?  If  we  admit  that  these 
races  are  all  descended  from  C.  livia,  no  breeder  will  doubt 
that  the  occasional  appearance  of  blue  birds  thus  character- 
ised is  accounted  for  on  the  well-known  principle  of  "  throw- 
ing back  "  or  reversion.  Why  crossing  should  give  so  strong 
a  tendency  to  reversion,  we  do  not  with  certainty  know; 
but  abundant  evidence  of  this  fact  will  be  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing chapters.  It  is  probable  that  I  might  have  bred  even 
for  a  century  pure  black  Barbs,  Spots,  Nuns,  white  Fantails, 
Trumpeters,  &c.,  without  obtaining  a  single  blue  or  barred 
bird;  yet  by  crossing  these  breeds  I  reared  in  the  first  and 
second  generation,  during  the  course  of  only  three  or  four 
years,  a  considerable  number  of  young  birds,  more  or  less 
plainly  coloured  blue,  and  with  most  of  the  characteristic 
marks.  When  black  and  white,  or  black  and  red  birds,  are 
crossed,  it  would  appear  that  a  slight  tendency  exists  in  both 
parents  to  produce  blue  offspring,  and  that  this,  when  com- 
bined, overpowers  the  separate  tendency  in  either  parent  to 
produce  black,  or  white,  or  red  offspring. 

If  we  reject  the  belief  that  all  the  races  of  the  pigeon  are 
the  modified  descendants  of  C.  livia,  and  suppose  that  they 
are  descended  from  several  aboriginal  stocks,  then  we  must 
choose  between  the  three  following  assumptions:  firstly,  that 
at  least  eight  or  nine  species  formerly  existed  which  were 
aboriginally  coloured  in  various  ways,  but  have  since  varied 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  so  as  to  assume  the  colouring 
of  C.  livia;  but  this  assumption  throws  not  the  least  light 
on  the  appearance  of  such  colours  and  marks  when  the  races 


208  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

are  crossed.  Or  secondly,  we  may  assume  that  the  aboriginal 
species  were  all  coloured  blue,  and  had  the  wing-bars  and 
other  characteristic  marks  of  C.  livia, — a  supposition  which  is 
highly  improbable,  as  besides  this  one  species  no  existing 
member  of  the  CoUimbidsTe  presents  these  combined  char- 
acters ;  and  it  would  not  be  possible  to  find  any  other  instance 
of  several  species  identical  in  plumage,  yet  as  different  in 
important  points  of  structure  as  are  Pouters,  Fantails,  Car- 
riers, Tumblers,  &c.  Or  lastly,  we  may  assume  that  all  the 
races,  whether  descended  from  C.  livia  or  from  several 
aboriginal  species,  although  they  have  been  bred  with  so  much 
care  and  are  so  highly  valued  by  fanciers,  have  all  been 
crossed  within  a  dozen  or  score  of  generations  with  C.  livia, 
and  have  thus  acquired  their  tendency  to  produce  blue  birds 
with  the  several  characteristic  marks.  I  have  said  that  it 
must  be  assumed  that  each  race  has  been  crossed  with  C. 
livia  within  a  dozen,  or,  at  the  utmost,  within  a  score  of  gen- 
erations; for  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  crossed  off- 
spring ever  revert  to  one  of  their  ancestors  when  removed 
by  a  greater  number  of  generations.  In  a  breed  which  has 
been  crossed  only  once,  the  tendency  to  reversion  will  natu- 
rally become  less  and  less  in  the  succeeding  generations,  as 
in  each  there  will  be  less  and  less  of  the  blood  of  the  foreign 
breed ;  but  when  there  has  been  no  cross  with  a  distinct  breed ; 
and  there  is  a  tendency  in  both  parents  to  revert  to  some  long- 
lost  character,  this  tendency,  for  all  that  we  can  see  to  the 
contrary,  may  be  transmitted  undiminished  for  an  indefinite 
number  of  generations.  These  two  distinct  cases  of  reversion 
are  often  confounded  together  by  those  who  have  written  on 
inheritance. 

Considering,  on  the  one  hand,  the  improbability  of  the 
three  assumptions  which  have  just'  been  discussed,  and  on 
the  other  hand,  how  simply  the  facts  are  explained  on  the 
principle  of  reversion,  we  may  conclude  that  the  occasional 
appearance  in  all  the  races,  both  when  purely  bred  and  more 
especially  when  crossed,  of  blue  birds,  sometimes  chequered, 
with  double  wing-bars,  with  white  or  blue  croups,  with  a 
bar  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  with  the  outer  tail-feathers 
edged  with  white,  affords  an  argument  of  the  greatest  weight 
in  favour  of  the  view  that  all  are  descended  from  Colinnha 


Chap.  VL  THEIR  REVERSIOX  IX  COLOUR.  200 

livia,  including-  under  this  name  the  three  or  four  wild 
varieties  or  sub-sx3ecies  before  enumerated. 

To  sum  up  the  six  foregoing-  arguments,  which  are  opposed 
to  the  belief  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  the  descendants 
of  at  least  eight  or  nine  or  perhaps  a  dozen  species;  for  tho 
crossing-  of  any  less  number  would  not  yield  the  characteristic 
differences  between  the  several  races.  Firstly,  the  improba- 
bility that  so  many  species  should  still  exist  somewhere,  but 
be  unknow^n  to  ornithologists,  or  that  they  should  have 
become  within  the  historical  period  extinct,  although  uian 
has  had  so  little  influence  in  exterminating  the  wild  C.  livia. 
Secondly,  the  improbability  of  man  in  former  times  having 
thoroughly  domesticated  and  rendered  fertile  under  confine- 
ment so  many  species.  Thirdly,  these  supposed  species  hav- 
ing nowhere  become  feral.  Fourthly,  the  extraordinary  fact 
that  man  should,  intentionally  or  by  chance,  have  chosen  for 
domestication  several  species,  extremely  abnormal  in  charac- 
ter; and  furthermore,  the  points  of  structure  which  render 
these  supposed  species  so  abnormal  being  now  highly  vari- 
able. Fifthly,  the  fact  of  all  the  races,  though  differing- 
in  many  important  points  of  structure,  producing  perfectly 
fertile  mongrels;  whilst  all  the  hybrids  which  have  been 
produced  between  even  closely  allied  species  in  the  pigeon- 
family  are  sterile.  Sixthly,  the  remarkable  statements  just 
given  on  the  tendency  in  all  the  races,  both  when  purely 
bred  and  when  crossed,  to  revert  in  numerous  minute  details 
of  colouring  to  the  character  of  the  w^ild  rock-pigeon,  and  to 
vary  in  a  similar  manner.  To  these  arguments  may  be  added 
the  extreme  improbability  that  a  number  of  species  formerly 
existed,  w^hich  differed  greatly  from  each  other  in  some  few 
points,  but  which  resembled  each  other  as  closely  as  do  the 
domestic  races  in  other  points  of  structure,  in  voice,  and 
in  all  their  habits  of  life.  When  these  several  facts  and 
arguments  are  fairly  taken  into  consideration,  it  would  re- 
quire an  overwhelming  amount  of  evidence  to  make  us  admit 
that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  descended  from  several 
aboriginal  stocks;  and  of  such  evidence  there  is  absolutely 
none. 

The  belief  that  the  chief  domestic  races  are  descended 
from  several  wild  stocks  no  doubt  has  arisen  from  the  ap- 


210  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

parent  improbability  of  such  great  modifications  of  structure 
having  been  effected  since  man  first  domesticated  the  rock- 
pigeon.  Nor  am  I  surprised  at  any  degree  of  hesitation  in 
admitting  their  common  parentage:  formerly,  when  I  went 
into  my  aviaries  and  watched  such  birds  as  Pouters,  Car- 
riers, Barbs,  Fantails,  and  Short-faced  Tumblers,  &g.,  I  could 
not  persuade  myself  that  all  had  descended  from  the  same 
wild  stock,  and  that  man  had  consequently  in  one  sense 
created  these  remarkable  modifications.  Therefore  I  have 
argued  the  question  of  their  origin  at  great,  and,  as  some 
will  think,  superfluous  length. 

Finally,  in  favour  of  the  belief  that  all  the  races  are 
descended  from  a  single  stock,  we  have  in  Columha  livia  a 
still  existing  and  widely  distributed  species,  which  can  be 
and  has  been  domesticated  in  various  countries.  This  species 
agrees  in  most  points  of  structure  and  in  all  its  habits  of 
life,  as  well  as  occasionally  in  every  detail  of  plumage,  with 
the  several  domestic  races.  It  breeds  freely  with  them,  and 
produces  fertile  offspring.  It  varies  in  a  state  of  nature,^" 
and  still  more  so  when  semi-domesticated,  as  shown  by  com- 
paring the  Sierra  Leone  pigeons  with  those  of  India,  or 
■with  those  which  apparently  have  run  wild  in  Madeira.  It 
has  undergone  a  still  greater  amount  of  variation  in  the  case 
of  the  numerous  toy-pigeons,  which  no  one  supposes  to  be 
descended  from  distinct  species;  yet  some  of  these  toy- 
pigeons  have  transmitted  their  character  truly  for  centuries. 
Why,  then,  should  we  hesitate  to  believe  in  that  greater 
amount  of  variation  which  is  necessary  for  the  production  of 
the  eleven  chief  races?  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in 
two  of  the  most  strongly-marked  races,  namely.  Carriers  and 
Short-faced  Tumblers,  the  extreme  forms  can  be  connected 
with  the  parent-species  by  graduated  differences  not  greater 
than  those  which  may  be  observed  between  the  dovecot- 
pigeons  inhabiting  different  countries,  or  between  the  various 
kinds  of  toy-pigeons, — gradations  which  must  certainly  be 
attributed  to  variation. 

^°  It  deserves  notioe.  as  bear-  mere  varieties,  but  that  the  spe- 
ing  on  the  general  subject  of  vari-  cies  of  several  allied  genera  are 
ation,  that  not  only  C.  livia  pre-  in  the  same  predicament.  This  is 
sents  several  wild  forms,  regard-  the  case,  as  Mr.  Blyth  has  re- 
ed by  some  naturalists  as  species  marked  to  me,  with  Treron,  Pa- 
and  by  others  as  sul)-species  or  as  lumbus,  and  Turtur. 


Chap.  VI.  THEIR  REVERSION  IN  COLOUR.  211 

That  circumstances  have  been  eminently  favourable  for 
the  modification  of  the  pigeon  through  variation  and  selec- 
tion will  now  be  shown.  The  earliest  record,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  to  me  by  Professor  Lepsius,  of  pigeons  in  a 
domesticated  condition,  occurs  in  the  fifth  Egyptian  dynasty, 
about  3000  B.C.;''  but  Mr.  Birch,  of  the  British  Museum, 
informs  me  that  the  pigeon  appears  in  a  bill  of  fare  in  the 
previous  dynasty.  ,  Domestic  pigeons  are  mentioned  in 
Genesis,  Leviticus,  and  Isaiah.^'  In  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
as  we  hear  from  Pliny,"*^  immense  prices  were  given  for 
pigeons ;  "  nay,  they  are  come  to  this  pass,  that  they  can 
reckon  up  their  pedigree  and  race."  In  India,  about  the  year 
1600,  pigeons  were  much  valued  by  Akber  Khan:  20,000 
birds  were  carried  about  with  the  court,  and  the  merchants 
brought  valuable  collections.  "  The  monarch  of  Iran  and 
Turan  sent  him  some  very  rare  breeds.  His  Majesty,"  says 
the  courtly  historian,  "  by  crossing  the  breeds,  which  method 
was  never  practised  before,  has  improved  them  astonishing- 
ly." '*  Akber  Khan  possessed  seventeen  distinct  kinds,  eight 
of  which  were  valuable  for  beauty  alone.  At  about  this  same 
period  of  1600  the  Dutch,  according  to  Aldrovandi,  were  as 
eager  about  pigeons  as  the  Romans  had  formerly  been.  The 
breeds  which  were  kept  during  the  fifteenth  century  in  Europe 
and  in  India  apparently  differed  from  each  other.  Tavernier, 
in  his  Travels  in  1677,  speaks,  as  does  Chardin  in  1735,  of 
the  vast  number  of  pigeon-houses  in  Persia;  and  the  former 
remarks  that,  as  Christians  were  not  permitted  to  keep 
pigeons,  some  of  the  vulgar  actually  turned  Mahometans 
for  this  sole  purpose.  The  Emperor  of  Morocco  had  his  fa- 
vourite keeper  of  pigeons,  as  is  mentioned  in  Moore's  treatise, 
published  in  1737.  In  England,  from  the  time  of  Willughby 
in  1678  to  the  present  day,  as  well  as  in  Germany  and  in 
Erance,    numerous    treatises    have    been    published    on    the 

• 

31  '  Denkmiiler,'  Abth.  ii.  Bl.  70.  common    to     the     Europonn     lan- 

32  The  '  Dovecote.'  bv  the  Rev.  suages.  This  fact  indicates  the 
E.  S.  Dixon,  1851.  pp.  11-13.  antiquity  of  the  donu'stication  of 
Adolphe  Pictet  (in  his  '  Les  Ori-  the  pigeon  in  the  East, 

gines  Indo-Enropeennes,'   1859,   p.  ^s  English      translation,      1001, 

399)  states  that  there  are  in  the  Book  x.  ch.   xxxvii. 

ancient     Sanscrit     language     be-  ^i  •  Ayeen    Akhcry.     translated 

tween   25  and   30   names   for   the  by  F.  Gladwin,  4to  edit.,  vol.  i.  p. 

pigeon,    and   other  15   or   16   Per-  270. 

sian    names;    none    of    these    are 

15 


212  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

pigeon.  In  India,  about  a  hundred  years  ago,  a  Persian 
treatise  was  written;  and  the  writer  thought  it  no  light 
affair,  for  he  begins  with  a  solemn  invocation,  "  in  the  name 
of  God,  the  gracious  and  merciful."  Many  large  towns,  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  now  have  their  societies  of 
devoted  pigeon-fanciers :  at  present  there  are  three  such 
societies  in  London.  In  India,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Blyth, 
the  inhabitants  of  Delhi  and  of  some  other  great  cities  are 
eager  fanciers.  Mr.  Layard  informs  me  that  most  of  the 
known  breeds  are  kept  in  Ceylon.  In  China,  according  to 
Mr.  Swinhoe  of  Amoy,  and  Dr.  Lockhart  of  Shangai,  Car- 
riers, Fantails,  Tumblers,  and  other  varieties  are  reared  with 
care,  especially  by  the  bonzes  or  priests.  The  Chinese  fasten 
a  kind  of  whistle  to  the  tail-feathers  of  their  pigeons,  and 
as  the  flock  wheels  through  the  air  they  produce  a  sweet 
sound.  In  Egypt  the  late  Abbas  Pacha  was  a  great  fancier 
of  Fantails.  Many  i3igeons  are  kept  at  Cairo  and  Constanti- 
nople, and  these  have  lately  been  imported  by  native  mer- 
chants, as  I  hear  from  Sir  W.  Elliot,  into  Southern  India, 
and  sold  at  high  prices. 

The  foregoing  statements  show  in  how  many  countries, 
and  during  how  long  a  period,  many  men  have  been  passion- 
ately devoted  to  the  breeding  of  pigeons.  Hear  how  an  en- 
thusiastic fancier  at  the  present  day  Avrites :  "  If  it  were 
possible  for  noblemen  and  gentlemen  to  know  the  amazing 
amount  of  solace  and  pleasure  derived  from  Almond  Tum- 
blers, when  they  begin  to  understand  their  properties,  I 
should  think  that  scarce  any  nobleman  or  gentleman  would 
be  without  their  aviaries  of  Almond  Tumblers,"  ^"^  The  pleas- 
ure thus  taken  is  of  paramount  importance,  as  it  leads  ama- 
teurs carefully  to  note  and  preserve  each  slight  deviation  of 
structure  which  strikes  their  fancy.  Pigeons  are  often 
closely  confined  during  their  whole  lives;  they  do  not 
partake  of  their  naturally  varied  diet;  they  have  often  been 
transported  from  one  climate  to  another;  and  all  these 
changes  in  their  conditions  of  life  would  be  likely  to  cause 
variability.  Pigeons  have  been  domesticated  for  nearly 
5000  years,  and  have  been  kept  in  many  places,  so  that  the 

25  J.  M.  Eaton,  '  Treatise  on  the  Almond  Tumbler,'  1851;  Pref- 
ace, p.  vi. 


Chap.  VI.     HISTORY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES.  213 

numbers  reared  under  domestication  must  have  been  enor- 
mous: and  this  is  another  circumstance  of  hi^^h  importance, 
for  it  obviously  favours  the  chance  of  rare  modifications  of 
structure  occasionally  appearing.  Slight  variations  of  all 
kinds  would  almost  certainly  be  observed,  and,  if  valued, 
would,  owing  to  the  following  circumstances,  be  preserved 
and  propagated  with  unusual  facility.  Pigeons,  differently 
from  any  other  domesticated  animal,  can  easily  be  mated  for 
life,  and,  though  kept  with  other  pigeons,  rarely  prove  un- 
faithful to  each  other.  Even  when  the  male  does  break  his 
marriage-vow,  he  does  not  permanently  desert  his  mate.  I 
have  bred  in  the  same  aviaries  many  pigeons  of  different 
kinds,  and  never  reared  a  single  bird  of  an  impure  strain. 
Hence  a  fancier  can  with  the  greatest  ease  select  and 
match  his  birds.  He  will  also  see  the  good  results  of  his 
care;  for  pigeons  breed  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  He 
may  freely  reject  inferior  birds,  as  they  serve  at  an  early 
age  as  excellent  food. 

History  of  the  principal  Races  of  the  Pigeon'^ 

Before  discussing  the  means  and  steps  by  which  the  chief  races 
have  been  formed,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  some  historical  de- 
tails for  more  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  pigeon,  little  though 
this  is,  than  of  any  other  domesticated  animal.  Some  of  the  cases 
are  interesting  as  proving  how  long  domestic  varieties  may  be 
propagated  with  exactly  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  characters; 
and  other  cases  are  still  more  interesting  as  showing  how  slowly 
but  steadily  races  have  been  greatly  modified  during  successive 
generations.  In  the  last  chapter  I  stated  that  Trumpeters  and 
Laughers,  both  so  remarkable  for  their  voices,  seem  to  have  been 
perfectly  characterised  in  1735;  and  Laughers  were  apparently 
known  in  India  before  the  year  ]600.  Spots  in  167G,  and  Nuns  in 
the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  before  1600,  were  coloured  exactly  as  they 
now  are.  Common  Tumblers  and  Ground  Tumblers  displayed  in 
India,  before  the  year  1600,  the  same  extraordinary  peculiarities 
of  flight  as  at  the  present  day,  for  they  are  well  described  in  tlie 
*  Ayeen  Akbery.'  These  breeds  may  all  have  existed  for  a  much 
longer  period;  we  know  only  that  they  were  perfectly  character- 
ised at  the  dates  above  given.  The  avercujc  length  of  life  of  the 
domestic  pigeon  is  probably  about  five  or  six  years;  if  so,  some  of 
these  races  have  retained  their  character  perfectly  for  at  least 
forty  or  fifty  generations. 

3^  As   in   the   following   discus-       cliapter    was    completed    in    the 
sion  I  often  speak  of  the  present       year  1858. 
time,    I    should    state    that    this 


h 


214  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

Pouters. — These  birds,  as  far  as  a  very  short  deseription  serves 
for  comparison,  appear  to  have  been  well  characterised  in  Aldro- 
vandi's  time,^'  before  tlie  year  1600.  Length  of  body  and  length 
of  leg  are  at  the  present  time  the  two  chief  points  of  excellence. 
In  173-5  Moore  said  (see  Mr.  J.  M.  Eaton's  edition) — and  Moore 
was  a  first-rate  fancier — that  he  once  saw  a  bird  with  a  bo<.ly  20 
inches  in  length,  "■  though  17  or  18  inches  is  reckoned  a  very  good 
length;  "  and  he  has  seen  the  legs  very  nearly  7  inches  in  length, 
yet  a  leg  G-J  or  6|  long  "  must  be  allowed  to  be  a  very  good  one." 
Mr.  Bult,  the  most  successful  breeder  of  Pouters  in  the  world,  in- 
forms me  that  at  present  (1858)  the  standard  length  of  the  body 
is  not  less  than  18  inches;  but  he  has  measured  one  bird  19 
inches  in  length,  and  has  heard  of  20  and  22  inches,  but  doubts 
the  truth  of  these  latter  statements.  The  standard  length  of  the 
leg  is  now  7  inches,  but  Mr.  Bult  has  recently  measured  two  of 
his  own  birds  with  legs  7i  long.  So  that  in  the  123  years  which 
have  elapsed  since  1735  there  has  been  hardly  any  increase  in  the 
standard  length  of  the  bodv;  17  or  18  inches  was  formerlv  reck- 
oned  a  very  good  length,  and  now  18  inches  is  the  minimum  stand- 
ard; but  the  length  of  leg  seems  to  have  increased,  as  Moore  never 
saw  one  quite  7  inches  long;  now  the  standard  is  7,  and  two  of 
Mr.  Bult's  birds  measured  7i-  inches  in  length.  The  extremelv 
slight  improvement  in  Pouters,  except  in  the  length  of  the  leg, 
during  the  last  123  years,  may  be  partly  accounted  for  by  the 
neglect  which  they  suffered,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Bult,  until 
w^ithin  the  last  20  or  30  vears.  About  1765^^  there  was  a  change 
of  fashion,  stouter  and  more  feathered  legs  being  preferred  to 
thin  and  nearly  naked  legs. 

F  ant  nils. — The  first  notice  of  the  existence  of  this  breed  is  in 
India,  before  the  vear  1600.  as  given  in  the  '  Aveen  Akberv';  ^^  at 
this  date,  judging  from  Aldrovandi,  the  breed  was  unknown  in 
Europe.  In  1677  Willughby  speaks  of  a  Fantail  with  26  tail- 
feathers;  in  1735  Moore  saw  one  with  36  feathers;  and  in  1824 
MM.  Boitard  and  Corbie  assert  that  in  France  birds  can  easily  be 
found  with  42  tail-feathers.  In  England,  the  number  of  the  tail- 
feathers  is  not  at  present  so  much  regarded  as  their  upward  di- 
rection and  expansion.  The  general  carriage  of  the  bird  is  like- 
Avise  now  much  valued.  The  old  descriptions  do  not  suffice  to 
show  whether  in  these  latter  respects  there  has  been  much  im- 
provement: but  if  Fantails  with  their  heads  and  tails  touching 
had  formerly  existed,  as  at  the  present  time,  the  fact  would  almost 
certainly  have  been  noticed.  The  Fantails  wliich  are  now  found 
in  India  probably  show  the  state  of  the  race,  as  far  as  carriage 
is  concerned,  at  the  date  of  their  introduction  into  Europe;  and 
some,   said   to   have  been   brought   from   Calcutta,   which   I   kept 

3"  '  Ornithologie,'    1600,    vol.    ii.  ^^  Mr.  Blyth  has  given  a  trans- 

p.  .360.  lation  of  part  of  the  '  Ayeen  Ak- 

3^  '  A     Treatise     on     Domestic  bery  '    in    '  Annals    anrl    Mag.    of 

Pigeons,'  dedicated  to  Mr.  Mayor,  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  xix.,  1847,  p.  104. 
1765.     Preface,   p.   xiv. 


Chap.  VI.      HISTORY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES.  215 

alive,  were  in  a  marked  manner  inferior  to  our  exhil)ition  birds. 
The  Java  Fantail  shows  the  same  diiference  in  carria^rc;  and  al- 
though Mr.  Swinhoe  has  counted  18  and  24  tail  feathers  in  his 
birds,  a  first-rate  specimen  sent  to  me  liad  only  14  tail-fciilhcrs. 

Jacobins.— This  breed  existed  before  lUUU,  but  tlie  liood.  juilg- 
ing  from  the  figure  given  by  Aldrovandi,  did  not  enclose  tiie  head 
nearly  so  perfectly  as  at  present:  nor  was  the  head  then  white; 
nor  were  the  wings  and  tail  so  long,  but  this  last  cliaractcr  might 
have  been  overlooked  by  the  rude  artist,  in  Moore's  time,  in  173.3, 
the  Jacobin  was  considered  the  smallest  kind  of  pigeon,  and 
the  bill  is  said  to  be  very  short.  Hence  either  the  Jacol)in, 
or  the  other  kinds  with  which  its  was  then  compared,  must 
since  that  time  have  been  considerably  motlilied;  for  Moore's 
description  (and  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  was  a  tirst- 
rate  judge)  is  clearly  not  applicable,  as  far  as  size  of  body  and 
length  of  beak  are  concerned,  to  our  present  Jacobins.  In'  17'.>5, 
judging  from  Bechstein,  the  breed  had  assumed  its  present 
character. 

Turhits. — It  has  generally  been  supposed  by  the  older  writers 
on  pigeons,  that  the  Turbit  is  the  Cortbeck  of  Aldrovandi;  but  if 
this  be  the  case,  it  is  an  extraordinary  fact  that  the  characteristic 
frill  should  not  have  been  noticed.  The  beak,  moreover,  of  the  Cort- 
beck is  described  as  closely  resembling  that  of  the  Jacobin,  which 
shows  a  change  in  the  one  or  the  other  race.  The  Turbit,  with 
its  characteristic  frill,  and  bearing  its  present  name,  is  described 
by  Willughby  in  1G77;  and  the  bill  is  said  to  be  like  that  of  the 
bullfinch,^a  good  comparison,  but  now  more  strictly  api)licable 
to  the  beak  of  the  Barb.  The  sub-breed  called  the  Owl  was  well 
known  in  Moore's  time,  in  1735. 

Tumblers. — Common  Tumblers,  as  well  as  Ground  Tumblers, 
perfect  as  far  as  tumbling  is  concerned,  existed  in  India  before 
the  year  1600 ;  and  at  this  period  diversified  modes  of  Uight.  such 
as  flying  at  night,  the  ascent  to  a  great  height,  and  manner  of  de- 
scent, seem  to  have  been  much  attended  to  in  India,  as  at  the 
present  time.  Belon  •*"  in  1555  saw  in  Paphlagonia  what  he  de- 
scribes as  "  a  very  new  thing,  viz.  pigeons  which  flew  so  high  in  the 
air  that  they  were  lost  to  \ie\v,  but  returned  to  their  pigeon-house 
without  separating."  This  manner  of  flight  is  characteristic  of 
our  present  Tumblers,  but  it  is  clear  that  Belon  would  have  men- 
tioned the  act  of  tumbling  if  the  pigeons  described  by  him  had 
tumbled.     Tumblers  were  not  known  in  Europe  in   1600.  as  they 


^_^^   „„   ,_   „.    period, 

overlooked  birds  so  remarkable  for  their  small  size  and  short 
beaks.  We  can  even  trace  some  of  the  steps  by  wlucli  this  race 
has  been  produced.  Moore  in  1735  enumerates  correctly  the  chief 
points  of  excellence,  but  does  not  give  any  description  of  tlie  sev- 

*o  '  L'Histoire  de  la  Nature  des    Oiseaux,'  p.  ;n4. 


216  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VL 

eral  sub-breeds ;  and  from  this  fact  Mr.  Eaton  infers  *^  that  the 
Short-faced  Tumbler  had  not  then  come  to  full  perfection,  Moore 
even  speaks  of  the  Jacobin  as  being  the  smallest  pigeon.  Thirty 
years  afterwards,  in  17C5,  in  the  Treatise  dedicated  to  Mayor, 
short-faced  Almond  Tumblers  are  fully  described,  but  the  author, 
an  excellent  fancier,  expressly  states  in  his  Preface  (p.  xiv.)  that, 
"  from  great  care  and  expense  in  breeding  them,  they  have  ar- 
rived to  so  great  perfection  and  are  so  different  from  what  they 
Avere  20  or  30  years  past,  that  an  old  fancier  would  liave  con- 
demned them  for  no  other  reason  than  because  they  are  not  like 
what  used  to  be  thought  good  when  he  was  in  the  fancy  before." 
Hence  it  would  appear  that  there  was  a  rather  sudden  change  in 
the  character  of  the  short-faced  Tumbler  at  about  this  period;  and 
there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  a  dwarfed  and  half-monstrous  bird, 
the  parent-form  of  the  several  short-faced  sub-breeds,  then  ap- 
peared. I  suspect  this  because  short-faced  Tumblers  are  born  with 
their  beaks  (ascertained  by  careful  measurement)  as  short,  pro- 
portionally with  the  size  of  their  bodies,  as  in  the  adult  bird ;  and 
in  this  respect  they  differ  greatly  from  all  other  breeds,  which 
slowly  acquire  during  growth  their  various  characteristic  qualities. 
Since  the  year  1765  there  has  been  some  change  in  one  of  the 
chief  characters  of  the  short-faced  Tumbler,  namely,  in  the  length 
of  the  beak.  Fanciers  measure  the  "  head  and  beak  "  from  the  tip 
of  the  beak  to  the  front  corner  of  the  eveball.  About  the  vear 
1765  a  "head  and  beak"  was  considered  good,^-  which,  measured 
in  the  usual  manner,  was  |  of  an  inch  in  length;  now  it  ought  not 
to  exceed  §  of  an  inch;  "  it  is  however  possible,"  as  Mr.  Eiaton  can- 
didly confesses,  "  for  a  bird  to  be  considered  as  pleasant  or  neat 
even  at  f  of  an  inch,  but  exceeding  that  length  it  must  be  looked 
upon  as  unworthy  of  attention."  Mr.  Eaton  states  that  he  has 
never  seen  in  the  course  of  his  life  more  than  two  or  three  birds 
Avith  the  "head  and  beak"  not  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  length; 
"  still  I  believe  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  that  the  head  and  beak 
Avill  be  shortened,  and  that  half-inch  birds  will  not  be  considered 
so  great  a  curiosity  as  at  the  present  tim.e."  That  Mr.  Eaton's 
opinion  deserves  attention  cannot  be  doubted,  considering  his  suc- 
cess in  winning  prizes  at  our  exhibitions.  Finally  in  regard  to  the 
Tumbler  it  may  be  conchuled  from  the  facts  above  given  that  it 
was  originally  introduced  into  Europe,  probably  first  into  England, 
from  the  East;  and  that  it  then  resembled  our  common  English 
Tumbler,  or  more  probably  the  Persian  or  Indian  Tumbler,  with  a 
beak  only  just  perceptibly  shorter  than  that  of  the  common  dove- 
cot-pigeon. With  respect  to  the  short-faced  Tumbler,  which  is 
not  known  to  exist  in  the  East,  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that 
the  whole  wonderful  change  in  the  size  of  the  head,  beak,  body, 
and  feet,  and  in  general  carriage,  has  been  produced  during  the 

"  '  Treatise  on  Pigeons,'   1S52,  the  Almond  Tumbler,'  1851.     Com- 

p.  64.  pare  p.   v.   of  Preface,   p.   9,   and 

*^  .7.    M.    Eaton's    '  Treatise   on  p.  32. 
the    Breeding    and    Managing    of 


Chap.  VI.    HISTORY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RACES.  217 

last  two  centuries  by  continued  selection,  aided  probal)lv  by  tlie 
birth  of  a  semi-monstrous  bird  somewhere  about  the  year  17.30. 

Rimts.— Of  their  histoiy  little  can  be  said.  In  the  time  of 
Pliny  the  pigeons  of  Campania  were  the  largest  known;  and  from 
this  fact  alone  some  authors  assert  that  they  were  Hunts.  In 
Aldrovandi's  time,  in  IGOO,  two  sub-breeds  existed;  but  one  of 
them,  the  short-beaked,  is  now  extinct  in  Europe. 

i?rtr^s.— Notwithstanding  statements  to  the  contrary,  it  seems 
to  me  impossible  to  recognise  the  Barb  in  AldrovandVs  descrip- 
tion and  figures;  four  breeds,  howeyer,  existed  in  the  year  KJOO 
which  eyidently  were  allied  both  to  Barbs  and  Carriers.  '  To  show 
how  difficult  it  is  to  recognise  some  of  the  breeds  described  by 
Aldroyandi  I  will  give  the  difTerent  opinions  in  regard  to  the 
aboyc  four  kinds,  named  by  him  C.  indica,  cretcnsis,  (jiitturosa, 
and  persica.  Willughby,  thought  that  the  Columha  hid  tea  was  a 
Turbit,  but  the  eminent  fancier  Mr.  Brent  belieyes  that  it  was  an 
inferior  Barb:  C.  cretensis,  with  a  short  beak  and  a  sw(>lling  on 
the  upper  mandible,  cannot  be  recognised:  C  (falsely  called)  yuttu- 
rosa,  which  from  its  rostrum,  hreve,  crassum,  et  tnhcnjuHm  seems 
to  me  to  come  nearest  to  the  Barb,  Mr.  Brent  believes  to  be  a 
Carrier;  and  lastly,  the  C.  persica  et  turcica,  Mr.  Brent  thinks, 
and  I  quite  concur  with  him,  was  a  short-beaked  Carrier  with  yery 
little  wattle.  In  1667  the  Barb  was  known  in  England,  and  Wil- 
lughby describes  the  beak  as  like  that  of  the  Turbit;  but  it  is 
not  credible  that  his  Barbs  should  have  had  a  beak  like  that  of 
our  present  birds,  for  so  accurate  an  observer  could  not  have  over- 
looked its  great  breadth. 

English  Carrier. — We  may  look  in  vain  in  Aldrovandi's  work 
for  an}^  bird  resembling  our  prize  Carriers;  the  C  persica  et  tur- 
cica of  this  author  comes  the  nearest,  but  is  said  to  have  had  a 
short  thick  beak;  therefore  it  must  have  approached  in  character 
a  Barb,  and  have  differed  greatly  from  our  Carriers.  In  Wil- 
lughby's  time,  in  1677,  we  can  clearly  recognise  the  Carrier,  yet 
he  adds,  "  the  bill  is  not  short,  but  of  a  moderate  length :  "  a  de- 
scription which  no  one  would  apply  to  our  present  Carriers,  so 
conspicuous  for  the  extraordinary  length  of  their  beaks.  The  old 
names  given  in  Europe  to  the  Carrier,  and  the  several  names  now 
in  use  in  India,  indicate  that  Carriers  originally  came  from  Persia; 
and  Willughby's  description  would  perfectly  apply  to  the  Bussorah 
Carrier  as  it  now  exists  in  ]\Iadras.  In  later  times  we  can  par- 
tially trace  the  progress  of  change  in  our  English  Carriers:  Moore, 
in  1735,  says  "  an  inch  and  a  half  is  reckoned  a  long  beak,  though 
there  are  Very  good  Carriers  that  are  found  not  to  exceed  an 
inch  and  a  quarter."  These  birds  must  have  resembleil  or  perhaps 
been  a  little  superior  to  the  Carriers,  previously  described,  now 
found  in  Persia.  In  England  at  the  present  day  "  tliore  are."  as 
Mr.  Eaton*'  states,  "beaks  that  would  measure  (from  edge  of  eye 
to  tip  of  beak)  one  inch  and  three-quarters,  and  some  few  even 
two  inches  in  length." 

"  '  Treatise  on   Pigeons,'   1852,  p.  41. 


218  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

From  these  historical  details  we  see  that  nearly  all  the 
chief  domestic  races  existed  before  the  year  1600.  Some 
remarkable  only  for  colour  appear  to  have  been  identical  with 
our  present  breeds,  and  were  nearly  the  same,  some  con- 
siderably different,  and  some  have  since  become  extinct. 
Several  breeds,  such  as  Finnikins  and  Turners,  the  swallow- 
tailed  pigeon  of  Bechstein  and  the  Carmelite,  seem  to  have 
originated  and  to  have  disappeared  within  this  same  period. 
Any  one  now  visiting  a  well-stocked  English  aviary  would 
certainly  pick  out  as  the  most  distinct  kinds,  the  massive 
Runt,  the  Carrier  with  its  wonderfully  elongated  beak  and 
great  wattles,  the  Barb  with  its  short  broad  beak  and  eye- 
wattles,  the  Short-faced  Tumbler  with  its  small  conical  beak, 
the  Pouter  with  its  great  crop,  long  legs  and  body,  the  Fan- 
tail  with  its  upraised,  widely-expanded,  well-feathered  tail, 
the  Turbit  with  its  frill  and  short  blunt  beak,  and  the  Jacobin 
with  his  hood.  Now,  if  this  same  person  could  have  viewed 
the  pigeons  kept  before  1600  by  Akber  Khan  in  India  and 
by  Aldrovandi  in  Europe,  he  would  have  seen  the  Jacobin 
with  a  less  perfect  hood;  the  Turbit  apparently  without  its 
frill;  the  Pouter  with  shorter  legs,  and  in  every  way  less 
remarkable — that  is,  if  Aldrovandi's  Pouter  resembled  the 
old  German  kind;  the  Fantail  would  have  been  far  less  sin- 
gular in  appearance,  and  would  have  had  much  fewer  feathers 
in  its  tail ;  he  would  have  seen  excellent  flying  Tumblers,  but 
he  would  in  vain  have  looked  for  the  marvellous  short-faced 
breeds :  he  would  have  seen  birds  allied  to  Barbs,  but  it  is 
extremely  doubtful  whether  he  would  have  met  with  our 
actual  Barbs;  and  lastly,  he  would  have  found  Carriers  with 
beaks  and  wattles  incomparably  less  developed  than  in  our 
English  Carriers.  He  might  have  classed  most  of  the  breeds 
in  the  same  groups  as  at  present;  but  the  differences  between 
the  groups  were  then  far  less  strongly  pronounced  than  at 
present.  In  short,  the  several  breeds  had  at  this  early  period 
not  diverged  in  so  great  a  degree  as  now  from  their  aboriginal 
common  parent,  the  wild  rock-pigeon. 

Manner  of  Formation  of  the  chief  Races. 

We  will  now  consider  more  closely  the  probable  steps  by 
which  the  chief  races  have  been  formed.     As  long  as  pigeons 


Chap.  VI.      MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES.  219 

are  kept  semi-domesticated  in  dovecots  in  thoir  native  coun- 
try, without  any  care  in  selecting:  and  matchinjr  them,  tlu'y 
are  liable  to  little  more  variation  than  the  wild  C.  livia, 
namely,  in  the  wings  becoming-  chequered  with  black,  in  the 
croup  being  blue  or  white,  and  in  the  size  of  the  body.  When, 
however,  dovecot-pigeons  are  transported  into  diversified 
countries,  such  as  Sierra  Leone,  the  Malay  archipelago,  and 
Madeira,  they  are  exposed  to  new  conditions  of  life;  and 
apparently  in  consequence  vary  in  a  somewhat  greater  degree. 
When  closely  confined,  either  for  the  pleasure  of  watching 
them,  or  to  prevent  their  straying,  they  must  be  exposed, 
even  in  their  native  climate,  to  considerably  different  con- 
ditions; for  they  cannot  obtain  their  natural  diversity  of 
food;  and,  what  is  probably  more  important,  they  are 
abundantly  fed,  whilst  debarred  from  taking  much  exercise. 
Under  these  circumstances  we  might  expect  to  find,  from  the 
analogy  of  all  other  domesticated  animals,  a  greater  amount 
of  individual  variability  than  with  the  wild  pigeon ;  and  this 
is  the  case.  The  want  of  exercise  apparently  tends  to  reduce 
the  size  of  the  feet  and  organs  of  flight;  and  then,  from  the 
law  of  correlation  of  growth,  the  beak  apparently  becomes 
affected.  From  what  we  now  see  occasionally  taking  place  in 
our  aviaries,  we  may  conclude  that  sudden  variations  or 
sports,  such  as  the  appearance  of  a  crest  of  feathers  on  the 
head,  of  feathered  feet,  of  a  new  shade  of  colour,  of  an  addi- 
tional feather  in  the  tail  or  wing,  would  occur  at  rare  inter- 
vals during  the  many  centuries  which  have  elapsed  since  the 
pigeon  was  first  domesticated.  At  the  present  day  such 
"sports"  are  generally  rejected  as  blemishes;  and  there  is 
so  much  mystery  in  the  breeding  of  pigeons  that,  if  a  valuable 
sport  did  occur,  its  history  would  often  be  concealed.  Before 
the  last  hundred  and  fifty  years,  there  is  hardly  a  chance  of 
the  history  of  any  such  sport  having  been  recorded.  But  it 
by  no  means  follows  from  this  that  such  sports  in  former 
times,  when  the  pigeon  had  undergone  much  less  variation, 
would  have  been  rejected.  We  are  profoundly  ignorant  of 
the  cause  of  each  sudden  and  apparently  spontaneous  varia- 
tion, as  well  as  of  the  infinitely  numerous  shades  of  differ- 
ence between  the  birds  of  the  same  family.  But  in  a  future 
chapter  we  shall  see  that  all  such  variations  appear  to   be 


•220  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI 

the  indirect  result  of  changes  of  some  kind  in  the  conditions 
•of  life. 

Hence,  after  a  long  course  of  domestication,  we  might 
■expect  to  see  in  the  pigeon  much  individual  variability,  and 
■occasional  sudden  variations,  as  well  as  slight  modifications 
from  the  lessened  use  of  certain  parts,  together  with  the 
effects  of  correlation  of  growth.  But  without  selection  all 
this  would  produce  only  a  trifling  or  no  result;  for  without 
such  aid  differences  of  all  kinds  would  from  the  two  fol- 
lowing causes,  soon  disappear.  In  a  healthy  and  vigorous 
lot  of  pigeons  many  more  young  birds  are  killed  for  food  or 
die  than  are  reared  to  maturity ;  so  that  an  individual  having 
any  peculiar  character,  if  not  selected,  would  run  a  good 
chance  of  being  destroyed;  and  if  not  destroyed,  the  peculi- 
••arity  in  question  w^ould  generally  be  obliterated  by  free  inter- 
crossing. It  might,  however,  occasionally  happen  that  the 
same  variation  repeatedly  occurred,  owing  to  the  action  of 
peculiar  and  uniform  conditions  of  life,  and  in  this  case  it 
would  prevail  independently  of  selection.  But  w^hen  selec- 
tion is  brought  into  play  all  is  changed;  for  this  is  the  foun- 
■dation-stone  in  the  formation  of  new  races;  and  with  the 
pigeon,  circumstances,  as  we  have  already  seen,  are  eminently 
favourable  for  selection.  When  a  bird  presenting  some  con- 
spicuous variation  has  been  preserved,  and  its  offspring  have 
been  selected,  carefully  matched,  and  again  propagated,  and 
so  onwards  during  successive  generations,  the  principle  is  so 
obvious  that  nothing  more  need  be  said  about  it.  This  may 
be  called  methodical  selection,  for  the  breeder  has  a  distinct 
object  in  view,  namely,  to  preserve  some  character  which  has 
actually  appeared;  or  to  create  some  improvement  already 
pictured  in  his  mind. 

Another  form  of  selection  has  hardly  been  noticed  by 
those  authors  who  have  discussed  this  subject,  but  is  even 
more  important.  This  form  may  be  called  unconscious  se- 
lection, for  the  breeder  selects  his  birds  unconsciously,  unin- 
tentionally, and  without  method,  yet  he  surely  though  slowly 
produces  a  great  result.  I  refer  to  the  effects  which  follow 
from  each  fancier  at  first  procuring  and  afterwards  rearing 
as  good  birds  as  he  can,  according  to  his  skill,  and  according 
to  the  standard  of  excellence  at  each  successive  period.     He 


Chap.  VI.       MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES.  221 

does  not  wish  permanently  to  modify  the  breed ;  he  does  not 
look  to  the  distant  future,  or  speculate  on  the  final  result  of 
the  slow  accumulation  during  many  generations  of  successive 
slight  changes;  he  is  contelit  if  he  possesses  a  good  stock, 
and  more  than  content  if  he  can  beat  his  rivals.  The  fan- 
cier in  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  when  in  the  year  IGOO  he  ad- 
mired his  own  Jacobins,  Pouters,  or  Carriers,  never  reflected 
what  their  descendants  in  the  year  1860  would  become:  he 
would  have  been  astonished  could  he  have  seen  our  Jacobins, 
our  improved  English  Carriers,  and  our  Pouters;  he  would 
probably  have  denied  that  they  were  the  descendants  of  liis 
own  once-admired  stock,  and  he  would  perhaps  not  have 
Talued  them,  for  no  other  reason,  as  was  written  in  17(35, 
^'than  because  they  were  not  like  what  used  to  be  thought 
good  when  he  was  in  the  fancy."  Xo  one  will  attribute 
the  lengthened  beak  of  the  Carrier,  the  shortened  beak 
of  the  Short-faced  Tumbler,  the  lengthened  leg  of  the 
Pouter,  the  more  perfectly  enclosed  hood  of  the  Jacobin,  cV:c., 
— changes  effected  since  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  or  even  since 
a  much  later  period, — to  the  direct  and  immediate  action  of 
the  conditions  of  life.  For  these  several  races  have  been  modi- 
£ed  in  various  and  even  in  directly  opposite  ways,  though 
kept  under  the  same  climate  and  treated  in  all  respects  in  as 
nearly  uniform  a  manner  as  possible.  Each  slight  change 
in  the  length  or  shortness  of  the  beak,  in  the  length  of  leg, 
&G.,  has  no  doubt  been  indirectly  and  remotely  caused  by 
some  change  in  the  conditions  to  which  the  bird  has  been 
Subjected,  but  we  must  attribute  the  final  result,  as  is  mani- 
fest in  those  cases  of  which  we  have  any  historical  record, 
to  the  continued  selection  and  accumulation  of  many  slight 
successive  variations. 

The  action  of  unconscious  selection,  as  far  as  pigeons  are 
concerned,  depends  on  a  universal  principle  in  human  na- 
ture, namely,  on  our  rivalry,  and  desire  to  outdo  our  neigh- 
bours. We  see  this  in  every  fleeting  fashion,  even  in  our 
dress,  and  it  leads  the  fancier  to  endeavour  to  exaggerate 
every  peculiarity  in  his  breeds.  A  great  authority  on 
pigeons,**  says,  "  Fanciers  do  not  and  will  not  admire  a 
medium  standard,  that  is,  half  and  half,  which  is  neither 

**  Eaton's     '  Treatise    ou    Pigeons,'  1858,  p.  86. 


222  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VL 

here  nor  there,  but  admire  extremes."  After  remarking  that 
the  fancier  of  Short-faced  Beard  Tumblers  wishes  for  a  very 
short  beak,  and  that  the  fancier  of  Long-faced  Beard  Tum- 
blers wishes  for  a  very  long  beak,  he  says,  with  respect  to 
one  of  intermediate  length,  "  Don't  deceive  yourself.  Do  you 
suppose  for  a  moment  the  short-  or  the  long-faced  fancier 
would  accept  such  a  bird  as  a  gift?  Certainly  not;  the 
short-faced  fancier  could  see  no  beauty  in  it;  the  long-faced 
fancier  would  swear  there  was  no  use  in  it,  &c."  In  these 
comical  passages,  written  seriously,  we  see  the  principle 
which  has  ever  guided  fanciers,  and  has  led  to  such  great 
modifications  in  all  the  domestic  races  which  are  valued  solely 
for  their  beauty  or  curiosity. 

Fashions  in  pigeon-breeding  endure  for  long  periods;  we 
cannot  change  the  structure  of  a  bird  as  quickly  as  we  can 
the  fashion  of  our  dress.  In  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  no 
doubt  the  more  the  pouter  inflated  his  crop,  the  more  he 
was  valued.  Nevertheless,  fashions  do  to  a  certain  extent 
change;  first  one  point  of  structure  and  then  another  is 
attended  to ;  or  different  breeds  are  admired  at  different  times 
and  in  different  countries.  As  the  author  just  quoted  re- 
marks, "  the  fancy  ebbs  and  flows ;  a  thorough  fancier  now-a- 
days  never  stoops  to  breed  toy-birds ;  "  yet  these  very  "  toys  " 
are  now  most  carefully  bred  in  Germany.  Breeds  which  at 
the  present  time  are  highly  valued  in  India  are  considered 
worthless  in  England.  No  doubt,  when  breeds  are  neglected, 
they  degenerate ;  still  we  may  believe  that,  as  long  as  they  are 
kept  under  the  same  conditions  of  life,  characters  once  gained 
will  be  partially  retained  for  a  long  time,  and  may  form 
the  starting-point  for  a  future  course  of  selection. 

Let  it  not  be  objected  to  this  view  of  the  action  of  un- 
conscious selection  that  fanciers  would  not  observe  or  care 
for  extremely  slight  differences.  Those  alone  who  have  asso- 
ciated with  fanciers  can  be  thoroughly  aware  of  their  accurate 
powers  of  discrimination  acquired  by  long  practice,  and  of 
the  care  and  labour  which  they  bestow  on  their  birds.  I 
have  known  a  fancier  deliberately  study  his  birds  day  after 
day  to  settle  which  to  match  together  and  which  to  reject. 
Observe  how  difficult  the  subject  appears  to  one  of  the  most 
eminent  and  experienced  fanciers.     Mr.   Eaton,   the  winner 


Chap.  VI.      MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES.  223 

of  many  prizes,  says,  "  I  would  here  particularly  ft-uard  you 
against  keeping  too  great  a  variety  of  pigeons,  otherwise  you 
will  know  a  little  about  all  the  kinds,  but  nothing  about  one 
as  it  ought  to  be  known."  "  It  is  possible  there  may  be  a 
few  fanciers  that  have  a  good  general  knowledge  of  the  sev- 
eral fancy  pigeons,  but  there  are  many  who  labour  under 
the  delusion  of  supposing  they  know  what  they  do  not." 
Speaking  exclusively  of  one  sub-variety,  namely,  the  Short- 
faced  jilmond  Tumbler,  and  after  saying  that  some  fanciers 
sacrifice  every  property  to  obtain  a  good  head  and  beak,  and 
that  other  fanciers  sacrifice  everything  for  plumage,  he  re- 
marks :  "  Some  young  fanciers  who  are  over  covetous  go  in 
for  all  the  five  properties  at  once,  and  they  have  their  reward 
by  getting  nothing."  In  India,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  lilyth, 
pigeons  are  likewise  selected  and  matched  with  the  greatest 
care.  We  must  not  judge  of  the  slight  divergences  from 
•existing  varieties  which  would  have  been  valued  in  ancient 
days,  by  those  which  are  now  valued  after  the  formation  of 
so  many  races,  each  with  its  own  standard  of  perfection,  kept 
uniform  by  our  numerous  Exhibitions.  The  ambition  of 
the  most  energetic  fancier  may  be  fully  satisfied  by  the  dif- 
ficulty of  excelling  other  fanciers  in  the  breeds  already  estab- 
lished, without  trying  to  form  a  new  one. 

A  difiiculty  with  respect  to  the  power  of  selection  will 
perhaps  already  have  occurred  to  the  reader,  namely,  what 
could  have  led  fanciers  first  to  attempt  to  make  such  singular 
breeds  as  Pouters,  Fantails,  Carriers,  &c.?  But  it  is  this 
very  difiiculty  which  the  principle  of  unconscious  selection 
removes.  Undoubtedly  no  fancier  ever  did  intentionally 
make  such  an  attempt.  All  that  we  need  suppose  is  that  a 
variation  occurred  sufficiently  marked  to  catch  the  discrim- 
inating eye  of  some  ancient  fancier,  and  then  unconscious 
selection  carried  on  for  many  generations,  that  is,  the  wish 
of  succeeding  fanciers  to  excel  their  rivals,  would  do  the 
rest.  In  the  case  of  the  Fantail  we  may  suppose  that  the 
first  progenitor  of  the  breed  had  a  tail  only  slightly  erected, 
as  may  now  be  seen  in  certain  Runts,*'  with  some  increase 

«  8ee  Nenmeister's  fiirnre  of  the    Florence   Runt,    tab.    13.    in   '  Das 
Ganze  der  Taubenzucht.' 


224  DOMESTIC   PIGEONS.  Chap.  YI. 

in  the  number  of  the  tail-feathers,  as  now  occasionally  oc- 
curs with  Nuns.  In  the  case  of  the  Pouter  we  may  suppose 
that  some  bird  inflated,  its  crop  a  little  more  than  other 
pigeons,  as  is  now  the  case  in  a  slight  degree  with  the  oesoph- 
agus of  the  Turbit.  We  do  not  know  the  origin  of  the 
common  Tumbler,  but  we  may  suppose  that  a  bird  was  born 
with  some  affection  of  the  brain,  leading  it  to  make  somer- 
saults in  the  air,^"  and  before  the  year  1600  pigeons  remark- 
able for  their  diversified  manner  of  flight  were  much  valued 
in  India,  and  by  the  order  of  the  Emperor  Akber  Khan  were 
sedulously  trained  and  carefully  matched. 

In  the  foregoing  cases  we  have  supposed  that  a  sudden 
variation,  conspicuous  enough  to  catch  a  fancier's  eye,  first 
appeared;  but  even  this  degree  of  abruptness  in  the  process 
of  variation  is  not  necessary  for  the  formation  of  a  new 
breed.  When  the  same  kind  of  pigeon  has  been  kept  pure, 
and  has  been  bred  during  a  long  period  by  two  or  more  fan- 
ciers, slight  differences  in  the  strain  can  often  be  recognised. 
Thus  I  have  seen  first-rate  Jacobins  in  one  man's  possession 
which  certainly  differed  slightly  in  several  characters  from 
those  kept  by  another,  I  possessed  some  excellent  Barbs 
descended  from  a  pair  which  had  won  a  prize,  and  another 
lot  descended  from  a  stock  formerly  kept  by  that  famous 
fancier,  Sir  John  Sebright,  and  these  plainly  differed  in  the 
form  of  the  beak;  but  the  differences  were  so  slight  that 
they  could  hardly  be  given  by  words.  Again,  the  common 
English  and  Dutch  Tumbler  differ  in  a  somewhat  greater 
degree,  both  in  length  of  beak  and  shape  of  head.  What 
first  caused  these  slight  differences  cannot  be  explained  any 
more  than  why  one  man  has  a  long  nose  and  another  a  short 
one.  In  the  strains  long  kept  distinct  by  different  fanciers, 
such  differences  are  so  common  that  they  cannot  be  accounted 
for  by  the  accident  of  the  birds  first  chosen  for  breeding' 
having  been  originally  as  different  as  they  now  are.  The 
explanation  no  doubt  lies  in  selection  of  a  slightly  different 

*®  Mr.  "W.  J.  Moore  gives  a  full  an  ordinary  pisreon,  brings  on  con- 
account  of  the  Ground  Tumblers  vulsive  movements  exactly  like 
of  India  ('  Indian  Medical  Ga-  those  of  a  Tumbler.  One  pigeon, 
zette,'  Jan.  and  Feb.,  187.3).  and  the  brain  of  which  had  been 
says  the  pricking  the  base  of  the  pricked,  completely  recovered, 
brain,  and  giving  hydrocyanic  and  ever  afterwards  occasionally 
acid,  together  with  strychnine,  to  made  somersaults. 


Chap.  VI.      MANNER  OB^  FORMATION  OP  RACES.  225- 

nature  having-  been  applied  in  each  case ;  for  no  two  fanciers 
have  exactly  the  same  taste,  and  consequently  no  two,  in 
choosing  and  carefully  matching  their  birds,  prefer  or  select 
exactly  the  same.  As  each  man  naturally  admires  his  own 
birds,  he  goes  on  continually  exaggerating  by  selection  what- 
ever slight  peculiarities  they  may  possess.  This  will  more 
especially  happen  with  fanciers  living  in  different  countries, 
who  do  not  compare  their  stocks  or  aim  at  a  common  stand- 
ard of  perfection.  Thus,  when  a  mere  strain  has  once  been 
formed,  unconscious  selection  steadily  tends  to  augment  the 
amount  of  difference,  and  thus  converts  the  strain  into  a 
sub-breed  and  this  ultimately  into  a  well-marked  breed  or 
race. 

The  principle  of  correlation  of  growth  should  never  be  lost 
sight  of.  Most  pigeons  have  small  feet,  apparently  caused 
by  their  lessened  use,  and  from  correlation,  as  it  would  ap- 
pear, their  beaks  have  likewise  become  reduced  in  length. 
The  beak  is  a  conspicuous  organ,  and,  as  soon  as  it  had  thus 
become  perceptibly  shortened,  fanciers  would  almost  certainly 
strive  to  reduce  it  still  more  by  the  continued  selection  of 
birds  W'ith  the  shortest  beaks;  whilst  at  the  same  time  other 
fanciers,  as  we  know  has  actually  been  the  case,  would  in 
other  sub-breeds,  strive  to  increase  its  length.  With  the  in- 
creased length  of  the  beak,  the  tongue  becomes  greatly 
lengthened,  as  do  the  eyelids  with,  the  increased  development 
of  the  eye- wattles;  with  the  reduced  or  increased  size  of  the 
feet,  the  number  of  the  scutellae  vary;  with  the  length  of  the 
wing,  the  number  of  the  primary  w^ing-feathers  differ;  and 
with  the  increased  length  of  the  body  in  the  Pouter  the 
number  of  the  sacral  vertebrae  is  augmented.  These  im- 
portant and  correlated  differences  of  structure  do  not  in- 
variably characterise  any  breed;  but  if  they  had  been  at- 
tended to  and  selected  with  as  much  care  as  the  more  con- 
spicuous external  differences,  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt 
that  they  would  have  been  rendered  constant.  Fanciers 
could  assuredly  have  made  a  race  of  Tumblers  with  nine 
instead  of  ten  primarj'  wdng-feathers,  seeing  how  often  the 
number  nine  appears  without  any  wish  on  their  part,  and 
indeed  in  the  case  of  the  white-winged  varieties  in  opposition 
to  their  wish.     In   a   similar   manner,   if   the  vertebrie   had 


226  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

been  visible  and  had  been  attended  to  by  fanciers,  assuredly 
£in  additional  number  might  easily  have  been  fixed  in  the  1 
Pouter.  If  these  latter  characters  had  once  been  rendered  '^ 
constant,  we  should  never  have  suspected  that  they  had  at  i 
£rst  been  highly  variable,  or  that  they  had  arisen  from 
correlation,  in  the  one  case  with  the  shortness  of  the  wings, 
and  in  the  other  case  with  the  length  of  the  body. 

In  order  to  understand  how  the  chief  domestic  races  have 
become  distinctly  separated  from  each  other,  it  is  important 
to  bear  in  mind,  that  fanciers  constantly  try  to  breed  from 
the  best  birds,  and  consequently  that  those  which  are  inferior 
in  the  requisite  qualities  are  in  each  generation  neglected; 
so  that  after  a  time  the  less  improved  parent-stocks  and 
many  subsequently  formed  intermediate  grades  become  ex- 
tinct. This  has  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  Pouter,  Turbit, 
and  Trumpeter,  for  these  highly  improved  breeds  are  now 
left  without  any  links  closely  connecting  them  either  with 
each  other  or  with  the  aboriginal  rock-pigeon.  In  other 
countries,  indeed,  where  the  same  care  has  not  been  applied, 
or  where  the  same  fashion  has  not  prevailed,  the  earlier  forms 
may  long  remain  unaltered,  or  altered  only  in  a  slight  degree, 
and  we  are  thus  sometimes  enabled  to  recover  the  connecting 
links.  This  is  the  case  in  Persia  and  India  with  the  Tumbler 
and  Carrier,  which  there  differ  but  slightly  from  the  rock- 
pigeon  in  the  proportions  of  their  beaks.  So  again  in  Java, 
the  Fantail  sometimes  has  only  fourteen  caudal  feathers,  and 
the  tail  is  much  less  elevated  and  expanded  than  in  our 
improved  birds;  so  that  the  Java  bird  forms  a  link  between 
a  first-rate  Fantail  and  the  rock-pigeon. 

Occasionally  a  breed  may  be  retained  for  some  particular 
quality  in  a  nearly  unaltered  condition  in  the  same  country, 
together  with  highly  modified  off-shoots  or  sub-breeds,  which 
are  valued  for  some  distinct  property.  We  see  this  exempli- 
fied in  England,  where  the  common  Tumbler,  which  is  valued 
only  for  its  flight,  does  not  differ  much  from  its  parent- 
form,  the  Eastern  Tumbler ;  whereas  the  Short-faced  Tum- 
bler has  been  prodigiously  modified,  from  being  valued,  not 
for  its  flight,  but  for  other  qualities.  But  the  common- 
flying  Tumbler  of  Europe  has  already  begun  to  branch  out 
into  slightly  different  sub-breeds,  such  as  the  common  Eng- 


Chap.  VL      MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES.  097 

lish  Tumbler,  the  Dutch  Roller,  the  Glasgow  House-tum- 
bler, and  the  Long-faced  Beard  Tumbler,  cV:c.;  and  in  the 
course  of  centuries,  unless  fashions  greatly  change,  these  sub- 
breeds  will  diverge  through  the  slow  and  insensible  process 
of  unconscious  selection,  and  become  modified,  in  a  greater 
and  greater  degree.  After  a  time  the  perfectly  graduated 
links  which  now  connect  all  these  sub-breeds  togetluji-,  will  be 
lost,  for  there  would  be  no  object  and  much  difficulty  in  re- 
taining such  a  host  of  intermediate  sub-varieties. 

The  principle  of  divergence,  together  with  the  extinction 
of  the  many  previously  existing  intermediate  forms,  is  so 
important  for  understanding  the  origin  of  domestic  races,  as 
well  as  of  species  in  a  state  of  nature,  that  I  will  enlarge  a 
little  more  on  this  subject.  Our  third  main  group  includes 
Carriers,  Barbs,  and  Eunts,  which  are  plainly  related  to  one 
another,  yet  wonderfully  distinct  in  several  important  char- 
acters. According  to  the  view  given  in  the  last  chapter, 
that  these  races  have  probably  descended  from  an  unknown 
race  having  an  intermediate  character,  and  this  race  from 
the  rock-pigeon.  Their  characteristic  differences  are  believed 
to  be  due  to  different  breeders  having  at  an  early  period 
admired  different  points  of  structure;  and  then,  on  the 
acknowledged  principle  of  admiring  extremes,  having  gone 
on  breeding,  without  any  thought  of  the  future,  as  good  birds 
as  they  could, — Carrier-fanciers  preferring  long  beaks  with 
much  w^attle, — Barb-fanciers  preferring  short  thick  beaks 
with  much  eye-wattle, — and  Runt-fanciers  not  caring  about 
the  beak  or  wattle,  but  only  for  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
body.  This  process  would  have  led  to  the  neglect  and  final 
extinction  of  the  earlier,  inferior,  and  intermediate  birds; 
and  thus  it  has  come  to  pass,  that  in  Europe  these  three  races 
are  now  so  extraordinarily  distinct  from  each  other.  But  in 
the  East,  whence  they  were  originally  brought,  the  fashion 
has  been  different,  and  we  there  see  breeds  which  connect  the 
highly  modified  English  Carrier  with  the  rock-pigeon,  and 
others  which  to  a  certain  extent  connect  Carriers  and  Runts. 
Looking  back  to  the  time  of  Aldrovandi,  we  find  that  there 
existed  in  Europe,  before  the  year  ICOO,  four  breeds  which 
were  closely  allied  to  Carriers  and  Barbs,  but  which  com- 
petent authorities  cannot  now  identify  with  our  present 
16 


22S  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  VI. 

Barbs  and  Carriers ;  nor  can  Aldrovandi's  Runts  be  identified 
with  our  present  Runts.  These  four  breeds  certainly  did 
not  differ  from  each  other  nearly  so  much  as  do  our  existing 
English  Carriers,  Barbs,  and  Runts.  All  this  is  exactly 
what  might  have  been  anticipated.  If  we  could  collect  all 
the  pigeons  which  have  ever  lived,  from  before  the  time  of 
the  Romans  to  the  present  day,  we  should  be  able  to  group 
them  in  several  lines,  diverging  from  the  parent  rock-pigeon. 
Each  line  would  consist  of  almost  insensible  steps,  occasion- 
ally broken  by  some  slightly  greater  variation  or  sport,  and 
each  would  culminate  in  one  of  our  present  highly  modified 
forms.  Of  the  many  former  connecting  links,  some  would  be 
found  to  have  become  absolutely  extinct  without  having 
left  any  issue,  whilst  others,  though  extinct,  would  be  recog- 
nised as  the  progenitors  of  the  existing  races. 

I  have  heard  it  remarked  as  a  strange  circumstance  that 
we  occasionally  hear  of  the  local  or  complete  extinction  of 
domestic  races,  whilst  we  hear  nothing  of  their  origin.  How, 
it  has  been  asked,  can  these  losses  be  compensated,  and  more 
than  compensated,  for  we  know  that  with  almost  all  domes- 
ticated animals  the  races  have  largely  increased  in  number 
since  the  time  of  the  Romans?  But  on  the  view  here  given, 
we  can  understand  this  apparent  contradiction.  The  ex- 
tinction of  a  race  within  historical  times  is  an  event  likely 
to  be  noticed;  but  its  gradual  and  scarcely  sensible  modifi- 
cation through  unconscious  selection,  and  its  subsequent 
divergence,  either  in  the  same  or  more  commonly  in  distant 
countries,  into  two  or  more  strains,  and  their  gradual  conver- 
sion into  sub-breeds,  and  these  into  well-marked  breeds  are 
events  which  would  rarely  be  noticed.  The  death  of  a  tree, 
that  has  attained  gigantic  dimensions,  is  recorded ;  the  slow 
growth  of  smaller  trees  and  their  increase  in  number  excite 
no  attention. 

In  accordance  with  the  belief  in  the  great  power  of  selec- 
tion, and  of  the  little  direct  power  of  changed  conditions  of 
life,  except  in  causing  general  variability  or  plasticity  of  or- 
ganisation, it  is  not  surprising  that  dovecot-pigeons  have 
remained  unaltered  from  time  immemorial;  and  that  some 
toy-pigeons,  which  differ  in  little  else  besides  colour  from  the 
dovecot-pigeon,  have  retained  the  same  character  for  several 


Chap.  VI.       MANNER  OP  FORMATION  OF  RACP]S. 


229 


centuries.  For  when  one  of  these  toy-pigeons  had  once  be- 
come beautifully  and  symmetrically  coloured,— when,  for  in- 
stance, a  Spot  had  been  produced  with  the  crown  of  its  head, 
its  tail,  and  tail-coverts  of  a  uniform  colour,  the  rest  of  the 
body  being-  snow-white,— no  alteration  or  improvement  would 
be  desired.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  surprising  that  dur- 
ing this  same  interval  of  time  our  highly-bred  pigeons  have 
undergone  an  astonishing  amount  of  change;  for" in  regard 
to  them  there  is  no  defined  limit  to  the  wish  of  the  fancier, 
and  there  is  no  known  limit  to  the  variability  of  their  char- 
acters. What  is  there  to  stop  the  fancier  desiring  to  give 
to  his  Carrier  a  longer  and  longer  beak,  or  to  his  Tumbler  a 
shorter  and  shorter  beak?  nor  has  the  extreme  limit  of  varia- 
bility in  the  beak,  if  there  be  any  such  limit,  as  yet  been 
reached.  K'otwithstanding  the  great  improvement  eifected 
within  recent  times  in  the  Short-faced  Almond  Tumbler,  Mr. 
Eaton  remarks,  "  the  field  is  still  as  open  for  fresh  competitors 
as  it  was  one  hundred  years  ago ;  "  but  this  is  perhaps  an 
exaggerated  assertion,  for  the  young  of  all  highly-improved 
fancy  birds  are  extremely  liable  to  disease  and  death. 

I  have  heard  it  objected  that  the  formation  of  the  several 
domestic  races  of  the  pigeon  throws  no  light  on  the  origin  of 
the  wild  species  of  the  Columbidse,  because  their  differences 
are  not  of  the  same  nature.  The  domestic  races,  for  instance, 
do  not  differ,  or  differ  hardly  at  all,  in  the  relative  lengths 
and  shape  of  the  primary  wing-feathers,  in  the  relative 
length  of  the  hind  toe,  or  in  habits  of  life,  as  in  roosting  and 
building  in  trees.  But  the  above  objection  shows  how  com- 
pletely the  principle  of  selection  has  been  misunderstood.  It 
is  not  likely  that  characters  selected  by  the  caprice  of  man 
should  resemble  differences  preserved  under  natural  condi- 
tions either  from  being  of  direct  service  to  each  species,  or 
from  standing  in  correlation  with  other  modified  and  service- 
able structures.  Until  man  selects  birds  differing  in  the  rela- 
tive length  of  the  wing-feathers  or  toes,  &c.,  no  sensible 
change  in  these  parts  should  be  expected.  Nor  could  man  ilo 
anything  unless  these  parts  happened  to  vary  under  domes- 
tication. I  do  not  positively  assert  that  this  is  the  case, 
although  I  have  seen  traces  of  such  variability  in  the  wing- 
feathers,  and  certainly  in  the  tail-feathers.     It  would  be  a 


230  DOMESTIC  PIGEONS.  Chap.  IV. 

strange  fact  if  the  relative  length  of  the  hind  toe  should  never 
vary,  seeing  how  variable  the  foot  is  both  in  size  and  in  the 
number  of  the  scutellse.  With  respect  to  the  domestic  races 
not  roosting  or  building  in  trees,  it  is  obvious  that  fanciers 
would  never  attend  to  or  select  such  changes  in  habits ;  but  we 
have  seen  that  the  pigeons  in  Egypt,  which  do  not  for  some 
reason  like  settling  on  the  low  mud  hovels  of  the  natives,  are 
led,  apparently  by  compulsion,  to  perch  in  crowds  on  the 
trees.  We  may  even  affirm  that,  if  our  domestic  races  had 
become  greatly  modified  in  any  of  the  above  specified  re- 
spects, and  it  could  be  shown  that  fanciers  had  never  attended 
to  such  points,  or  that  they  did  not  stand  in  correlation  with 
other  selected  characters,  the  fact,  on  the  principles  advocated 
in  this  chapter,  would  have  offered  a  serious  difficulty. 

Let  us  briefly  sum  up  the  last  two  chapters  on  the  pigeon. 
We  may  conclude  with  confidence  that  all  the  domestic  races, 
notwithstanding  their  great  amount  of  difference,  are  de- 
scended from  the  Columha  livia,  including  under  this  name 
certain  wild  races.  But  the  differences  between  the  latter 
throw  no  light  whatever  on  the  characters  which  distinguish 
the  domestic  races.  In  each  breed  or  sub-breed  the  indi- 
vidual birds  are  more  variable  than  birds  in  a  state  of  nature ; 
and  occasionally  they  vary  in  a  sudden  and  strongly-marked 
manner.  This  plasticity  of  organisation  apparently  results 
from  changed  conditions  of  life.  Disuse  has  reduced  certain 
parts  of  the  body.  Correlation  of  growth  so  ties  the  organi- 
sation together,  that  when  one  part  varies  other  parts  vary  at 
the  same  time.  When  several  breeds  have  once  been  formed, 
their  intercrossing  aids  the  progress  of  modification,  and  has 
even  produced  new  sub-breeds.  But  as,  in  the  construction 
of  a  building,  mere  stones  or  bricks  are  of  little  avail  without 
the  builder's  art,  so,  in  the  production  of  new  races,  selection 
has  been  the  presiding  power.  Fanciers  can  act  by  selection 
on  excessively  slight  individual  differences,  as  well  as  on 
those  greater  differences  which  are  called  sports.  Selection 
is  followed  methodically  when  the  fancier  tries  to  improve 
and  modify  a  breed  according  to  a  prefixed  standard  of  ex- 
cellence; or  he  acts  unmethodically  and  unconsciously,  by 
merely  trying  to  rear  as  good  birds  as  he  can,  without  any 
wish  or  intention  to  alter  the  breed.     The  progress  of  se- 


Chap.  VI.      MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  RACES.  231 

lection  almost  inevitably  leads  to  the  neglect  and  ultimate 
extinction  of  the  earlier  and  less  improved  forms,  as  well  as 
of  many  intermediate  links  in  each  long  line  of  descent. 
Thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  most  of  our  present  races  are 
so  marvellously  distinct  from  each  other,  and  from  the 
aboriginal  rock-pigeon. 


232  FOWLS.  Chap.  YII. 


CHAPTEE   VII. 

FOWLS. 

Brief  descriptions  of  the  chief  breeds — Arguments  in  favour  of  their  de- 
scent from  several  species — Arguments  in  favour  of  all  the  breeds 
having  descended  from  Gall  us  bnnkiva—'RexeTsion  to  the  parent- 
stock  in  colour — Analogous  variations — Ancient  history  of  the  fowl — 
External  differences  between  the  several  breeds — Eggs — Chickens — 
Secondary  sexual  characters — Wing-  and  tail-  feathers,  voice,  disposi- 
^  tiou,  etc. — Osteological  differences  in  the  skull,  vertebrte,  etc. — Effects 
of  use  and  disuse  on  certain  parts — Correlation  of  growth. 

As  some  naturalists  may  not  be  familiar  with  the  chief 
breeds  of  the  fowl,  it  w^ill  be  advisable  to  give  a  condensed 
description  of  them.^  From  what  I  have  read  and  seen  of 
specimens  brought  from  several  quarters  of  the  world,  I  be- 
lieve that  most  of  the  chief  kinds  have  been  imported  into 
England,  but  many  sub-breeds  are  probably  still  unknown 
here.  The  following  discussion  on  the  origin  of  the  various 
breeds  and  on  their  characteristic  differences  does  not  pretend 
to  completeness,  but  may  be  of  some  interest  to  the  natural- 
ist. The  classification  of  the  breeds  cannot,  as  far  as  I  can 
see,  be  made  natural.  They  differ  from  each  other  in  differ- 
ent degrees,  and  do  not  afford  characters  in  subordination  to 
each  other,  by  which  they  can  be  ranked  in  group  under 
group.  They  seem  all  to  have  diverged  by  independent  and 
different  roads  from  a  single  type.  Each  chief  breed  in- 
cludes differently  coloured  sub-varieties,  most  of  which  can 
be  truly  propagated,  but  it  would  be  superfluous  to  describe 
them.  I  have  classed  the  various  crested  fowls  as  sub-breeds 
under  the  Polish  fowl;  but  I  have  great  doubts  whether  this 
is  a  natural  arrangement,  showing  true  affinity  or  blood  re- 

1  I  have  drawn  up  this  brief  sisted  me  in  every  possible  way 
synopsis  from  various  sources,  in  ol)taining  for  me  information 
but  chiefly  from  information  given  and  specimens.  I  must  not  let 
me  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier.  This  gen-  this  opportunity  pass  without  ex- 
tleman  lias  kindly  looked  through  pressing  my  cordial  thanks  to  Mr. 
tills  chapter:  and  from  his  well-  B.  P.  Brent,  a  well-known  writer 
linown  knowledge,  the  statements  on  poultry,  for  continuous  assist- 
here  given  may  be  fully  trusted.  ance  and  the  gift  of  manj-  speci- 
Mr.   Tegetmeier  has  likewise  as-  mens. 


Chap.  VII.  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  233 

lationship.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  avoid  layin^^  stress  on 
the  commonness  of  a  breed ;  and  if  certain  foreign  sub-breeds 
had  been  largely  kept  in  this  country  they  would  i)crluips 
have  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  main-breeds.  Several  breeds 
are  abnormal  in  character;  that  is,  they  differ  in  certain 
points  from  all  wild  gallinaceous  birds.  At  first  1  made 
a  division  of  the  breeds  into  normal  and  abnormal,  but  the 
result  was  wholly  unsatisfactory. 

1.  Game  BREED.--This  iricay  be  considered  as  the  lv|)i(ul  breed 
as  it  deviates  only  slightly  from  the  wild  Gall  us  ban  him,  or,  as 
perhaps  more  correctly  named,  fcrriKjineiis.  lieak  strong:  cmnb 
single  and  upright.  Spurs  long  and  sharp.  Feathers  ch.M-ly  ap- 
piessed  to  the  body.  Tail  with  the  normal  number  of  14  feathers. 
Eggs  often  pale  buff.  Disposition  indomitably  courageous.  e,\- 
hibited  even  in  the  hens  and  chickens.  An  unusual  number  of 
difi'erently  coloured  varieties  exist,  such  as  black  and  brown- 
breasted  reds,  duckwings,  blacks,  whites,  piles,  &.C.,  with  their  legs 
of  various  colours. 

2.  Malay  Breed.— Body  of  great  size,  Avith  head,  neck,  and 
legs  elongated;  carriage  erect;  tail  small,  sloping  downwards,  gen- 
erally formed  of  16  feathers;  comb  and  wattle  small;  ear-lobe  and 
face  red:  skin  yellowish;  feathers  closely  appressed  to  the  body; 
neck-hackles  short,  narrow,  and  hard.  Eggs  often  pale  buff. 
Chickens  feather  late.     Disposition  savage.     Of  Eastern  origin. 

3.  CocniN,  OR  Shanghai  Breed. — Size  great;  wing  feathers 
short,  arched,  much  hidden  in  the  soft  downy  plumage;  barely 
capable  of  flight;  tail  short,  generally  formed  of  1(5  feathers,  devel- 
oped at  a  late  period  in  the  young  males;  legs  thick,  feathered; 
spurs  short,  thick ;  nail  of  middle  toe  flat  and  broad  ;  an  additional 
toe  not  rarely  developed ;  skin  yellowish.  Comb  and  wattle  well 
developed.  Skull  with  deep  medial  furrow;  occipital  foramen,  sub- 
triangular,  vertically  elongated.  Voice  peculiar.  Eggs  rough, 
buff-coloured.     Disposition  extremely  quiet.     Of  Chinese  origin. 

4.  DoRKiXG  Breed. — Size  great;  body  square,  compact:  feet 
Avith  an  additional  toe;  comb  well  developed,  but  varies  nnich  in 
form;  wattles  well  dcAeloped;  colour  of  plumage  various.  Skull 
remarkably  broad  between  the  orbits.     Of  English  origin. 

The  white  Dorking  mav  be  considered  as  a  distinct  sub-breed, 
bemg  a  less  massive  bird, 

5.  Spanish  Breed  (Fig.  30), — Tall,  with  stately  carriage;  tarsi 
long;  comb  single,  deeply  serrated,  of  immense  size;  wattles  large- 
ly developed;  the  large  ear-lobes  and  sides  of  face  white,  riuina!_'e 
black  glossed  with  green.  Do  not  incubate.  Tender  in  constitu- 
tion, the  comb  being  often  injured  by  frost.  Eggs  white,  smootli, 
of  large  size.  Chickens  feather  late,  but  the  young  cocks  show 
their  masculine  characters,  and  crow  at  an  early  age.  Of  Medi- 
terranean origin. 


234 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


The  Andalusiatis  may  be  ranked  as  a  sub-breed:   they  are  of 
a    slaty-blue    colour,    and    their    chickens    are   well    feathered.     A 


Fig.  30.— Spanish  Fowl. 

smaller,  short-legged  Dutch  sub-breed  has  been  described  by  some 
authors   as   distinct. 

6.  Hamburgh  Breed  (Fig.  31). — Size  moderate;  comb  flat,  pro- 
duced backwards,  covered  with  numerous  small  points;  wattle  of 
moderate  dimensions;  ear  lobe  white;  legs  bluish,  thin.  Do  not 
incubate.  Skull,  with  the  tips  of  the  ascending  brandies  of  the 
premaxillary  and  with  the  nasal  bones  standing  a  little  separate 
from  each  other;  anterior  margin  of  the  frontal  bones  less  de- 
pressed than  usual. 


Chap.  VII. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS. 


235 


There  are  two  sub-breeds;  the  spamiJrd  irainbinirh,  of  En.rlisli 
origin,  with  the  tips  of  the  feathers  marked  wilh  a  ,hirk  spot  fand 
the  pencilled  Hamburgh,  of  Dutch  origin,  with  (hirk  transverse 
lines  across  each  feather,  and  with  the  body  rather  smaller      Both 


Si^l-MS^^^^ 


Fig.  31. — Hamburgh  Fowl. 

these  sub-breeds  include  gold  and  silver  varieties,  as  well  as  some 
other  sub-varieties.  Black  Hamburghs  have  been  produced  b}'  a 
cross  with  the  Spanish  breed. 

7.  Crested  or  Polish  Breed  (Fig.  32). — Head  willi  a  large, 
rounded  crest  of  feathers,  supported  on  a  hemispherical  protuber- 
ance of  the  frontal  bones,  which  includes  the  antei'ior  part  of  the 
brain.  The  ascending  branches  of  premaxillary  bones  and  the 
inner  nasal  processes  are  much  shortened.  The  orifice  of  the  nos- 
trils raised  and  crescentic.  Beak  short.  Comb  absent,  or  small 
and  of  crescentic  shape;  wattles  either  present  or  re])lared  bv  a 
beard-like  tuft  of  feathers.  Legs  leaden-blue.  Sexual  diircrences 
appear  late  in  life.  Do  not  incubate.  Tlu're  are  several  beautiful 
varieties  which  differ  in  colour  and  slightly  in  other  respects. 


236 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


The  following  sub-breeds  agree  in  having  a  crest,  more  or  less 
developed,  with  the  comb,  when  present,  or  crescentic  shape.  The 
skull  presents  nearly  the  same  remarkable  peculiarities  of  structure 
as  in  the  true  Polish  fowl. 

Sub-breed  (rt)  ^Sulta7lS. — A  Turkish  breed,  resembling  white 
Polish  fowls  with  a  large  crest  and  beard,  with  short  and  well- 


FiG.  32.— Polish  Fowl. 

"feathered  legs.    The  tail  is  furnished  with  additional  sickle  feathers. 
Do  not  incubate.^ 

Sub-breed  {b)  Ptarmifians. — An  inferior  breed  closely  allied  to 
the  last,  white,  rather  small,  legs  much  feathered,  with  the  crest 
pointed;   comb  small,  cupped;   wattles  small. 


2  The  best  account  of  Snltans 
is  by  Miss  Watts  in  '  The  Poultry 
Yard,'  1856,  p.  79.     I  owe  to  Mr. 


Brent's  kindness  the  examination 
of  some  specimens  of  this  breed. 


Chap.  VII.  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS.  237 

Sub-breed  (c)  Ghoondnolcfi.—Anoiher  Turkish  brood  liavinfr  :.n 
extraordinary  appearance;  black  and  tailless;  crest  and  b'eard 
large;  legs  feathered.  The  inner  processes  of  the  two  nasal  bones 
come  into  contact  with  each  other,  owing  to  the  coniplete  abortion 
of  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillarics.  1  have  seen  an 
allied  white,  tailless  breed  from  Turkey. 

Sub-breed  {d)  Creve-cocur.—A  French  breed  of  large  size,  bai-e- 
ly  capable  of  flight,  with  short  black  legs,  hoiul  crested,  comb  i»ro- 
duced  into  two  points  or  horns,  sometimes  a  little  branched  like  the 
horns  of  a  stag;  both  beard  and  wattles  present.  Eggs  large. 
Disposition  quiet.^ 

Sub-breed  (e)  Honied  fo/r/.— With  a  small  crest;  comb  i)ro- 
duced  into  two  great  points,  supported  on  two  bony  protuberances. 

Sub-breed  if)  Hoitdan. — A  French  breed;  of  moilerate  size, 
short-legged  with  fi^e  toes,  well  developed;  plumage  invariably 
mottled  with  black,  white,  and  straw-yellow;  head  fuinishod  with 
a  crest,  on  a  triple  comb  placed  transversely;  both  wattles  and 
beard  present.* 

Sub-breed  (g)  Guclderlands. — No  comb,  head  said  to  be  sur- 
mounted by  a  longitudinal  crest  of  soft  velvety  feathers;  nostrils 
said  to  be  crescentic;  wattles  well  developed;  legs  feathered;  col- 
our black.  From  North  America.  The  Breda  fowl  seems  to  be 
closely  allied  to  the  Guelderland. 

8.  Baxtam  Breed.^ — Originally  from  Japan,^  characterised  by 
small  size  alone:  carriage  bold  and  erect.  There  are  several  sub- 
breeds,  such  as  the  Cochin,  Game,  and  Sebright  Bantams,  some  of 
which  have  been  recentlv  formed  bv  various  crosses.  The  J^lack 
Bantam  has  a  difi'eiently  shaped  skull,  with  the  occipital  foramen 
like  that  of  the  Cochin  fowl. 

9.  RuAiPLESs  Fowls. — These  are  so  variable  in  character"'  that 
they  hardly  deserve  to  be  called  a  breed.  Any  one  wlio  will  ex- 
amine the  caudal  vertebrae  will  see  how  monstrous  the  breed  is. 

10.  Ceeepers  or  Jumpers. — These  are  characterised  by  an  al- 
most monstrous  shortness  of  legs,  so  that  they  move  by  jumjiing 
rather  than  by  walking;  they  are  said  not  to  scratch  up  the 
ground.  I  have  examined  a  Burmese  variety,  which  had  a  skull 
of  rather  unusual  shape. 

11.  Frizzled  or  Caere  Fowls. — Not  uncomjnon  in  India, 
with  the  feathers  curling  backwards,  and  with  the  primary  foatlicrs 
of  the  wing  and  tail  imperfect;  periosteum  of  bones  black. 

12.  Silk  Fowls. — Feathers  silky,  with  the  primary  wing  and 
tail-feathers  imperfect;   skin  and  periosteum  of  bones  black;  comb 

^A  good   description,   with   fig-  ^  Mr.       f'rawfnrd.       '  T»oscript. 

tires,  is  given  of  tliis  sub-breed  in  Diet,    of   tlio    Indian    Islands,"    p. 

the     '  .Tournal     of     Horticulture,'  IIH.      P>antains   arc    mentioned    in 

June  10th,  1S()2,  p.  206.  an    ancient    native    .Iai)anese    Kn- 

*  A  description,  with  figures,  is  cyclopaMlia,   as  I  am  informed   by 

given  of  this  breed  in  '  .Journal  of  Mr.  Bircli  of  the  British  Mu«Mini. 
Horticulture,'    June   3rd,    1S62,    p.  *■•  '  Ornamental     and     Domestic 

186.      Some    writers    describe   the  Poultry,'   1S48. 
comb  as  two-horned. 


238  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

and  wattles  dark  leaden-blue;   ear-lappets  tinged  with  blue;   legs 
thin, 'often  furnished  with  an  additional  toe.     Size  rather  small. 

13.  Sooty  Fowls. — An  Indian  breed,  having  the  peculiar  ap- 
pearance of  a  white  bird  smeared  with  soot,  with  black  skin  and 
periosteum.     The  hens  alone  are  thus  characterised. 

From  this  synopsis  we  see  thf^t  the  several  breeds  differ 
considerably,  and  they  would  have  been  nearly  as  inter- 
esting for  us  as  pigeons,  if  there  had  been  equally  good  evi- 
dence that  all  had  descended  froin  one  parent-species.  Most 
fanciers  believe  that  they  are  descended  from  several  primi- 
tive stocks.  The  Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon  ^  argues  strongly  on  this 
side  of  the  question;  and  one  fancier  even  denounces  the  op- 
posite conclusion  by  asking,  "  Do  we  not  perceive  pervading 
this  spirit,  the  spirit  of  the  Deist?  ^^  '  Most  naturalists,  w^ith 
the  exception  of  a  few,  such  as  Temminck,  believe  that  all  the 
breeds  have  proceeded  from  a  single  species ;  but  authority 
on  such  a  point  goes  for  little.  Fanciers  look  to  all  parts  of 
the  w'orld  as  the  possible  sources  of  their  unknown  stocks ; 
thus  ignoring  the  laws  of  geographical  distribution.  They 
know  w^ell  that  the  several  kinds  breed  truly  even  in  colour. 
They  assert,  but,  as  we  shall  see,  on  very  weak  grounds,  that 
most  of  the  breeds  are  extremely  ancient.  They  are  strongly 
impressed  wath  the  great  difference  between  the  chief  kinds, 
and  they  ask  with  force,  can  differences  in  climate,  food,  or 
treatment  have  produced  birds  so  different  as  the  black  state- 
ly Spanish,  the  diminutive  elegant  Bantam,  the  heavy  Cochin 
with  its  many  peculiarities,  and  the  Polish  fowl  with  its  great 
top-knot  and  protuberant  skull  ?  But  fanciers,  whilst  ad- 
mitting and  even  overrating  the  effects  of  crossing  the  various 
breeds  do  not  sufficiently  regard  the  probability  of  the  oc- 
casional birth,  during  the  course  of  centuries,  of  birds  with 
abnormal  and  hereditary  peculiarities;  they  overlook  the 
effects  of  correlation  of  grow^th — of  the  long-continued  use 
and  disuse  of  parts,  and  of  some  direct  result  from  changed 
food  and  climate,  though  on  this  latter  head  I  have  found 
no  sufficient  evidence;  and  lastly,  they  all,  as  far  as  I 
know%  entirely  overlook  the  all-important  subject  of  uncon- 
scious or  unmethodical  selection,  though  they  are  well  aw^are 
that  their   birds   differ   individually   and   that   by   selecting 


7   ' 


Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poultry,'  1S48. 


Chap.  VII.  THEIR  PAREXTAGE.  239 

the    best    birds    for    a    few    generations    they    can    improve 
their  stocks. 

An  amateur  writes'  as  follows:  "The  fact  that  poultry 
have  until  lately  received  but  little  attention  at  the  hands  of 
the  fancier,  and  been  entirely  confined  to  the  domains  of  the 
producer  for  the  market,  would  alone  suggest  the  improbabil- 
ity of  that  constant  and  unremitting  attention  having  been 
observed  in  breeding,, which  is  requisite  to  the  consummating 
in  the  offspring  of  any  two  birds  transmittable  forms  not 
exhibited  by  the  parents."  This  at  first  sight  appears  true. 
But  in  a  future  chapter  on  Selection,  abundant  facts  will  be 
given  showing  not  only  that  careful  breeding,  but  that  actual 
selection  w^as  practised  during  ancient  periods,  and  by  barely 
civilized  races  of  man.  It  the  case  of  the  fowl  I  can  adduce 
no  direct  facts  showing  that  selection  was  anciently  practised ; 
but  the  Romans  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era 
kept  six  or  seven  breeds,  and  Columella  "  particularly  recom- 
mends as  the  best,  those  sorts  that  have  five  toes  and  white 
ears."  In  the  fifteenth  century  several  breeds  were  known 
and  described  in  Europe;  and  in  China,  at  nearly  the  same 
period,  seven  kinds  w^ere  named.  A  more  striking  case  is 
that  at  present,  in  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  semi-bar- 
barous inhabitants  have  distinct  native  names  for  no  less 
than  nine  sub-breeds  of  the  Game  fowl.^°  Azara,"  who 
wrote  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  states  that  in  the 
interior  parts  of  South  America,  where  I  should  not  have  ex- 
pected that  the  least  care  would  have  been  taken  of  poultry, 
a  black-skinned  and  black-boned  breed  is  kept,  from  being 
considered  fertile  and  its  flesh  good  for  sick  persons.  Xow 
every  one  who  has  kept  poultry  knows  how  impossible  it  is  to 
keep  several  breeds  distinct  unless  the  utmost  care  be  taken  in 
separating  the  sexes.  Will  it  then  be  i)retended  that  those 
persons  who,  in  ancient  times  and  in  semi-civilized  countries 
took  pains  to  keep  the  breeds  distinct,  and  who  therefore 
valued  them,  would  not  occasionally  have  destroj-ed  inferior 

8  Ferguson's  'Illustrated  Series  tion  of  the  Domesticated  Animals 

of  Rare  and  Prize  Poultrj','  1854,  to   Civilization,'   separately   print- 

p.  vi.,  Preface.  ed,  p.  6;  first  read  before  the  lirit. 

»  Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  in  his  '  Or-  Assoc,  at  Oxford.   lS(iO. 
namental    Poultry,'    p.    20.3.    gives  ^^  '  Quadrupedes  du   Paraguay,' 

an  account  of  Columella's  work.  tom.  ii.  p.  324. 

"  Mr.  Crawfurd  '  On  the  Rela- 


240  FOWLS.  Chap.  VIL 

birds  and  occasionally  have  preserved  their  best  birds  ?  This 
is  all  that  is  required.  It  is  not  pretended  that  any  one  in 
ancient  times  intended  to  form  a  new  breed,  or  to  modify  an 
old  breed  according  to  some  ideal  standard  of  excellence.  He 
who  cared  for  poultry  would  merely  wish  to  obtain,  and 
afterwards  to  rear,  the  best  birds  which  he  could;  but  this 
occasional  preservation  of  the  best  birds  would  in  the  course 
of  time  modify  the  breed,  as  surely,  though  by  no  means  as 
rapidly,  as  does  methodical  selection  at  the  present  day.  If 
one  person  out  of  a  hundred  or  out  of  a  thousand  attended  to 
the  breeding  of  his  birds,  this  would  be  sufficient:  for  the 
birds  thus  tended  would  soon  become  superior  to  others,  and 
would  form  a  new  strain ;  and  this  strain  would,  as  explained 
in  the  last  chapter  slowly  have  its  characteristic  differences 
augmented,  and  at  last  be  converted  into  a  new  sub-breed  or 
breed.  But  breeds  would  often  be  for  a  time  neglected  and 
would  deteriorate ;  they  would,  however,  partially  retain  their 
character,  and  afterwards  might  again  come  into  fashion  and 
be  raised  to  a  standard  of  perfection  higher  than  their  former 
standard ;  as  has  actually  occurred  quite  recently  with  Polish 
fowls.  If,  however,  a  breed  were  utterly  neglected,  it  would 
become  extinct,  as  has  recently  happened  with  one  of  the 
Polish  sub-breeds.  Whenever  in  the  course  of  past  centuries 
a  bird  appeared  with  some  slight  abnormal  structure,  such  as 
with  a  lark-like  crest  on  its  head,  it  would  probably  often  have 
been  preserved  from  that  love  of  novelty  which  leads  some 
persons  in  England  to  keep  rumpless  fowls,  and  others  in  In- 
dia to  keep  frizzled  fowls.  And  after  a  time  any  such  ab- 
normal appearance  would  be  carefully  preserved,  from  being 
esteemed  a  sign  of  the  purity  and  excellence  of  the  breed ;  for 
on  this  principle  the  Romans  eighteen  centuries  ago  valued 
the  fifth  toe  and  the  white  ear-lobe  in  their  fowls. 

Thus  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  abnormal  char- 
acters, though  at  first  only  slight  in  degree;  from  the  effects 
of  the  use  and  the  disuse  of  parts;  possibly  from  the  direct 
effects  of  changed  climate  and  food;  from  correlation  of 
growth;  from  occasional  reversions  to  old  and  long-lost  char- 
acters; from  the  crossing  of  breeds,  when  more  than  one 
had  been  formed;  but,  above  all,  from  unconscious  selection 
carried  on  during  many  generations,  there  is  no  insuperable 


Chap.  VII.  THEIR  PAREXTAGE. 


241 


difficulty,  to  the  best  of  my  judgment,  in  believing  that  all 
the  breeds  have  descended  from  some  one  parent-source.  Can 
any  single  species  be  named  from  which  we  may  reasonably 
suppose  that  all  are  descended?  The  Gallus  hankiva  ap- 
parently fulfils  every  requirement.  I  have  already  given 
as  fair  an  account  as  I  could  of  the  arguments  in  favour  of 
the  multiple  origin  of  the  several  breeds;  and  now  I  will 
give  those  in  favour  of  their  common  descent  from  G. 
hanhiva. 

But  it  will  be  convenient  first  briefly  to  describe  all  the  known 
species  of  Gallus.  The  G.  sonneratii  does  not  range  into  the  north- 
ern parts  of  India;  according  to  Colonel  Sykes,'^  it  presents  at 
different  heights  of  the  Ghauts,  two  strongly  marked  varieties 
perhaps  deserving  to  be  called  species.  It  was  at  one  time  thought 
to  be  the  primitive  stock  of  all  our  domestic  breeds,  and  this  shows 
that  it  closely  approaches  the  common  fowl  in  general  structure; 
but  its  hackles  partially  consist  of  highly  peculiar,  horny  laminre,. 
transversely  banded  with  three  colours;  and  I  have  met  no  au- 
thentic account  of  any  such  character  having  been  observed  in  any 
domestic  breed.^^  This  species  also  difi'ers  greatly  from  the  com- 
mon fowl,  in  the  comb  being  finely  serrated,  and  in  the  loins  being 
destitute  of  true  hackles.  Its  voice  is  utterly  difterent.  It  crosses 
readily  in  India  with  domestic  hens;  and  Mr.  Blyth  ^*  raised  near- 
ly 100  hybrid  chickens;  but  they  were  tender  and  mostly  died 
whilst  young.  Those  which  were  reared  were  absolutely  sterile 
when  crossed  i7itcr  se  or  with  either  parent.  At  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  however,  some  hybrids  of  the  same  parentage  were  not 
quite  so  sterile:  Mr.  Dixon,  as  he  informed  me,  made,  with  ]\Ir. 
Yarrell's  aid,  particular  inquiries  on  this  subject,  and  was  assured 
that  out  of  50  eggs  only  five  or  six  chickens  were  reared.  Some, 
however,  of  these  half-bred  birds  were  crossed  with  one  of  their 
parents,  namely,  a  Bantam,  and  produced  a  few  extremely  feeble 
chickens.  Mr.  Dixon  also  procured  some  of  these  same  birds  and 
crossed  them  in  several  ways,  but  all  were  more  or  less  infertile. 
Nearly  similar  experiments  have  recently  been  tried  on  a  great 
scale  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  with  almost  the  same  result.'* 
Out  of  500  eggs,  raised  from  various  first  crosses  and  hybrids,  be- 
tween G.  sonneratii,  banlciva,  and  rariiis,  only  12  chickens  were 
reared,  and  of  these  only  three  were  the  product  of  hybrids   ///- 

12  '  Proc.  Zoolog.   Soc.,'  1832,  p.  acter  of  those  of  G.  soniirratii.  ex- 

151.  cept  that  tlie  horny  lamina?  were 

1*  These  feathers  have  been  de-  much  smaller, 
scribed  bv  Dr.  W.  Marshall,  '  Der  '* -Sfrr    also    an    oxcelhMit    letter 

Zoolog.    Garten,'    April,    1874.    p.  on   the   I'oultry  of  Iiulia.   by    Mr. 

124.     I  examined   the  feathers  of  Blyth.  in  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,' 

some  hvbrids    raised   in   the   Zoo-  18.")!.  p.  <31!). 

logical  Gardens  between  the  male  '^  i\ir.  s.  J.  Salter,  in  '  Natural 

6.  sonneratii  and  a  red  game-hen,  History    Review,'    April,    1S03,    p.. 

and  they  exhibited  the  true  char-  276. 


242  FOWLS.  Chap.  VIL 

ter  se.  From  these  facts,  and  from  the  above-mentioned  strongly 
marked  ditferences  in  structure  between  the  domestic  fowl  and 
G.  sonneratii,  we  may  reject  this  latter  species  as  the  parent  of  any 
domestic  breed. 

Ceylon  possesses  a  fowl  peculiar  to  the  island,  viz.  G.  stanJeyii; 
this  species  approaches  so  closely  (except  in  the  colouring  of  the 
comb)  to  the  domestic  fowl,  that  Messrs.  Layard  and  Kellaert^® 
would  have  considered  it,  as  they  inform  me,  as  one  of  the  parent- 
stocks,  had  it  not  been  for  its  singularly  different  voice.  This 
bird,  like  the  last,  crosses  readily  with  tame  hens,  and  even  visits 
solitary  farms  and  ravishes  them.  Two  hybrids,  a  male  and  fe- 
male, thus  produced,  were  found  by  Mr.  Mitford  to  be  quite  sterile: 
both  inherited  the  peculiar  voice  of  G.  stanleyii.  This  species, 
then,  may  in  all  probability  be  rejected  as  one  of  the  primitive 
stocks  of  the  domestic  fowl. 

Java  and  the  islands  eastward  as  far  as  Flores  are  inhabited 
by  G.  varins  (or  furcatus),  which  differs  in  so  many  characters — 
green  plumage,  unserrated  comb,  and  single  median  wattle — that 
no  one  supposes  it  to  have  been  the  parent  of  any  one  of  our  breeds; 
yet,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Crawfurd,^^  hybrids  are  commonly 
raised  between  the  male  G.  varins  and  the  common  hen,  and  are 
kept  for  their  great  beauty,  but  are  invariably  sterile:  this,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  case  with  some  bred  in  the  Zoological  Gardens. 
These  hybrids  were  at  one  time  thought  to  be  specifically  distinct, 
and  were  named  G.  emeus.  Mr.  Blyth  and  others  believe  that  the 
G.  tennninckii^^  (of  which  the  history  is  not  known)  is  a  similar 
hybrid.  Sir  J.  Brooke  sent  me  some  skins  of  domestic  fowls  from 
Borneo,  and  across  the  tail  of  one  of  these,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  ob- 
served, there  were  transverse  blue  bands  like  those  which  he  had 
seen  on  the  tail-feathers  of  hybrids  from  G.  varins,  reared  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens.  This  fact  apparently  indicates  that  some  of 
the  fowls  of  Borneo  have  been  slightly  affected  by  crosses  with 
G.  varins.  but  the  case  may  possibly  be  one  of  analogous  variation. 
I  may  just  allude  to  the  G.  gigantcus.  so  often  referred  to  in  works 
on  poultry  as  a  wild  species;  but  Marsden  ^^  the  first  describer, 
speaks  of  it  as  a  tame  breed;  and  the  specimen  in  the  British 
Museum  evidently  has  the  aspect  of  a  domestic  variety. 

The  last  species  to  be  mentioned,  namely,  Galliis  banl'ii'a,  has 
a  much  wider  geographical  range  than  the  three  previous  species; 
it  inhabits  Northern  India  as  far  west  as  Sinde,  and  ascends  the 
Himalaya  to  a  height  of  4000  ft.;  it  inhabits  Burmah.  the  ]Malay 
peninsula,  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
the  ]\Ialayan  archipelago  as  far  eastward  as  Timor.  This  species 
A^aries  considerably  in  the  wild  state.     Mr.  Blyth  informs  me  that 

i«  See  also  Mr.   Layard's  paper  •  Proc.    Zoolog.    Soc.,'    1849,    page 

in  '  Annals  and  Mas:,  "of  Nat.  His-  62. 

tory,'  2nd  series,   vol.   xiv.  p.  G2.  ^^  The  passage  from  Marsden  is 

1"  See  also  Mr.  Crawfurd's  '  De-  given  by  Mr.  Dixon  in  his  '  Poiil- 

scriptive   Diet,   of  the   Indian   Is-  try  Book.'   p.   176.      No  ornitholo- 

lands,'  1856,  p.  113.  gist  now  ranks  this  bird  as  a  dis- 

1*  Described  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray,  tinct  species. 


Chap.  VII.  THEIR  PARENTAGE.  243 

Ihe  specimens,  both  male  and  female,  brought  from  near  the  Hima- 
laya, are  rather  paler  coloured  than  those  from  otiier  parts  of 
India;  whilst  those  from  the  Malay  peninsuhi  and  Java  are 
brighter  coloured  than  the  Indian  birds.  I  have  seen  specimens 
from  these  countries,  and  the  difterence  of  tint  in  the  hackU'S  was 
conspicuous.  The  Malayan  hens  were  a  sluuh-  rochler  on  tlie  bicast 
and  neck  than  the  Indian  hens.  The  Malayan  mah-s  geucrallv 
had  a  red  ear-lappet,  instead  of  a  white  one  as  in  India;  l)ut  Mr. 
Blyth  has  seen  one  Indian  specimen  without  tlie  wliite  ear  Iaj)pet. 
The  legs  are  leaden  blue  in  the  Indian,  whereas  they  show  some 
tendency  to  be  yellowish  in  the  Malayan  and  Javan  specimens.  In 
tlie  former  Mr.  Blyth  finds  the  tarsus  remarkably  variahle  in 
length.  According  to  Temminck -"  the  Timor  specimens  didVr  as 
a  local  race  from  that  of  Java.  These  several  wild  varieties  liave 
not  as  yet  been  ranked  as  distinct  species;  if  they  should,  as  is 
not  unlikely,  be  hereafter  thus  ranked,  the  circumstance  would  be 
quite  immaterial  as  far  as  the  parentage  and  dilFerences  of  our 
domestic  breeds  aie  concerned.  The  wild  G.  bdnkini  agrees  most 
closely  with  the  black-breasted  red  Game-breed,  in  colouring  and  in 
all  other  respects,  except  in  being  smaller,  and  in  the  tail  being 
carried  more  horizontally.  But  the  manner  in  which  the  tail  is 
carried  is  highly  variable  in  many  of  our  breeds,  for,  as  j\Ir,  Brent 
informs  me,  the  tail  slopes  much  in  the  Malays,  is  erect  in  tiie 
Games  and  some  other  breeds,  and  is  more  than  erect  in  Dork- 
ings, Bantams,  &c.  There  is  one  other  difference  namely,  that  in 
G.  bankiva,  according  to  Mr.  Blyth,  the  neck-hackles  when  first 
moulted  are  replaced  during  two  or  three  months  not  by  other 
hackles,  as  with  our  domestic  poultry,  but  by  short  blaekish 
feathers.--  Mr.  Brent,  however,  has  remarked  that  these  black 
feathers  remain  in  the  wild  bird  after  the  development  of  the 
lower  hackles,  and  appear  in  the  domestic  bird  at  the  same  time 
with  them:  so  that  the  only  diflference  is  that  the  lower  hackk^s 
are  replaced  more  slowly  in  the  wild  than  in  the  tame  bird ;  but 
as  confinement  is  known  sometimes  to  affect  the  masculine  plum- 
age, this  slight  diiference  cannot  be  considered  of  any  importance. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  voicfe  of  both  the  male  and  female 
G.  bankiva  closely  resembles,  as  Mr.  Blyth  and  others  have  noted, 
the  voice  of  both  sexes  of  the  common  domestic  fowl ;  but  the  last 
note  of  the  crow  of  the  wild  bird  is  rather  less  ))rolonged.  Gap- 
tain  Hutton,  well  known  for  his  researches  into  the  natui-al  his- 
tory of  India,  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  several  crossed  fowls 
from  the  wild  species  and  the  Chinese  bantam ;  these  crossed  fowls 
bred  freely  with  bantams,  but  unfortunately  were  not  crossed  inter 
se.  Captain  Hutton  reared  chickens  from  the  eggs  of  the  Gallm 
bankiva;  and  these,  though  at  first  very  wild,  afterwards  became 
so  tame  that  thev  would  crowd  round  his  feet.     He  did  not  sue- 

20 'Coup-d'oeil  general  surrinde  ^i  Mr.    Blyth.    in    'Annals   anil 

Archipelagique,'   tom.  iii.(lS40).   p.  Majr.  of  Nat.  Hist.,    2ua  ser.,  vol. 

177;   see  also   Mr.    Blyth,    '  Indian  i.  (1848),  p.  455. 
Sporting  Review,'  vol.  11.  p.  5, 185G. 

17 


244  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

ceed  in  rearing  them  to  maturity;  but  as  he  remarks,  "no  wild 
gallinaceous  bird  thrives  well  at  first  on  hard  grain."  Mr.  Blyth 
also  found  much  difiiculty  in  keeping  G.  han'kiva  in  confinement. 
In  the  Philippine  Islands,  however,  the  natives  must  succeed  bet- 
ter, as  they  keep  wild  cocks  to  fight  with  their  domestic  game- 
birds."  Sir  Walter  Elliot  informs  me  that  the  hen  of  a  native  do- 
mestic breed  of  Pegu  is  undistinguishable  from  the  hen  of  the  wild 
G.  banl'ira ;  and  the  natives  constantly  catch  wild  cocks  by  taking 
tame  cocks  to  fight  A^ith  them  in  the  woods. -^  ]\lr.  Crawfurd  re- 
marks that  from  etvinoloav  it  might  be  argued  that  the  fowl  was 
first  domesticated  by  the  Malays  and  Javanese.-*  It  is  also  a 
curious  fact,  of  which  I  have  been  assured  bj'  ]\Ir.  Blyth,  that  wild 
specimens  of  the  GalJiis  haiikiiu,  brought  from  the  countries  east 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  are  far  more  easily  tamed  than  those  of 
India;  nor  is  this  an  unparalleled  fact,  for,  as  Humboldt  long  ago 
remarked,  the  same  species  sometimes  evinces  a  more  tameable 
disposition  in  one  country  than  in  another.  If  we  suppose  that 
the  G.  hankira  was  first  tamed  in  jMalaya  and  afterwards  imported 
into  India,  we  can  understand  an  observation  made  to  me  by  Mr. 
Blyth,  that  the  (iouiestic  fowls  of  India  do  not  resemble  the  wild 
G.  hankiva  of  India  more  closely  than  do  those  of  Europe. 

From  the  extremely  close  resemblance  in  colour,  general 
structure,  and  especially  in  voice,  between  G alius  hankiva 
and  the  Game  fowl;  from  their  fertility,  as  far  as  this  has 
been  ascertained,  when  crossed;  from  the  possibility  of  the 
wild  species  being  tamed,  and  from  its  varying  in  the  wild 
state,  we  may  confidently  look  at  it  as  the  parent  of  the  most 
typical  of  all  the  domestic  breeds  namely,  the  Game  fowl. 
It  is  a  significant  fact,  that  almost  all  the  naturalists  in 
India,  namely  Sir  W.  Elliot,  Mr.  S.  ^N.  W^ard,  Mr.  Layard, 
Mr.  J.  C.  Jerdon,  and  Mr.  Blyth,'^  who  are  familiar  with 
G.  hankiva,  believe  that  it  is  the  parent  of  most  or  all  our 
domestic  breeds.  But  even  if  it  be  admitted  that  G.  hankiva 
is  the  parent  of  the  Game  breed,  yet  it  may  be  urged  that 
other  wild  species  have  been  the  parents  of  the  other  domestic 
breeds ;  and  that  these  species  still  exist,  though  unknown,  in 
some  country,  or  have  become  extinct.     The  extinction,  how- 

"■-  Crawfurd,     '  Desc.     Diet,     of  .7o>n-n.    of  Lit.    and   Science,'   vol. 

Indian  Islands.'  1850.  p.  112.  xxii.  p.  2.  spoakinsr  of  G.  hankiva, 

"^^  In  Burmah,  as  I  hear  from  says,  "  unquestionably  the  origin 
Mr.  Blyth,  the  wild  and  tame  of  most  of  the  varieties  of  our 
poultry  constantly  cross  toi?ethor,  common  fowls."  For  Mr.  Blyth, 
and  irrefj:ular  transitional  forms  srr  his  excellent  article  in  '  Gar- 
may  be  seen.  dener's  Chron.,'  1851,  p.  619;  and 

'*  Ibid.  p.  113.  in     '  Annals    and     Maj;.     of    Nat. 

25  Mr.    Jerdon,   in  the   'Madras  Hist.,'  vol.  xx.,  1847,  p.  388. 


Chap.  VII. 


THEIR   PAKEXTAGE. 


245 


ever,  of  several  species  of  fowl,  is  an  improbable  hypothesis,. 
seeing  that  the  four  known  species  have  not  become  extinct 
in  the  most  ancient  and  thickly  peopled  regions  of  tlic  East. 
There  is,  in  fact  not  one  other  kind  of  domesticated  bird,  of 
which  the  wild  parent-form  is  unknown,  that  is  become  ex- 
tinct. For  the  discovery  of  new,  or  the  rediscovery  of  old 
species  of  Gallus,  we  must  not  look,  as  fanciers  often  look,  to 
the  whole  world.  The  larger  gallinaceous  birds,  as  Mr.  Blyth 
has  remarked,""  generally  have  a  restricted  range:  we  see  tliis 
well  illustrated  in  India,  where  the  genus  Gallus  inhabits  the 
base  of  the  Himalaya,  and  is  succeeded  higher  up  by  Gallo- 
phasis,  and  still  higher  up  by  Phasianus.  Australia,  with  its. 
islands,  is  out  of  the  question  as  the  home  for  unknown  sjjc- 
cies  of  the  genus.  It  is,  also,  as  improbable  that  GaHas 
should  inhabit  South  America"'  as  that  a  humming-l)ird 
should  be  found  in  the  Old  World.  From  the  character  of 
the  other  gallinaceous  birds  of  Africa,  it  is  not  probable  that 
Gallus  is  an  African  genus.  We  need  not  look  to  the  western 
parts  of  Asia,  for  Messrs.  Blyth  and  Crawfurd,  who  have  at- 
tended to  this  subject,  doubt  whether  Gallus  ever  existed  in 
a  wild  state  even  as  far  west  as  Persia.     Although  the  earliest 


26  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1851, 
p.  610. 

-'  I  have  consulted  an  eminent 
authority,  Mr.  Selater,  on  this 
sul:»ject,  and  he  thinks  that  I  have 
not  expressed  myself  too  strons?- 
ly.  I  am  aware  that  one  ancient 
author.  Aeosta.  s])ealis  of  fowls 
as  having  inhal)ited  S.  America  at 
the  period  of  its  discovery:  and 
more  recently,  about  1795.  Olivier 
de  Serres  speaks  of  wild  fowls  in 
the  forests  of  Guiana;  these  were 
probably  feral  birds.  Dr.  Daniell 
tells  me,  he  believes  that  fowls 
have  become  wild  on  the  west 
coast  of  Equatorial  Africa;  they 
may,  however,  not  be  true  fowls, 
but  jc^allinaceous  birds  belongini? 
to  the  genus  Phasidus.  The  old 
A'oyagerBarbut  says  that  poultry 
are  not  natural  to  Guinea.  Capt. 
W.  Allen  ('  Narrative  of  Niger 
Expedition,'  1848.  vol.  ii.  p.  42) 
describes  wild  fowls  on  Ilha  dos 
Rollas,  an  island  near  St.  Thom- 
as's on  the  west  coast  of  Africa; 
the  natives  informed  him  that 
they  liad  escaped  from  a  vessel 
wrecked   there    many   years   ago; 


they  were  extremely  wild  an<l 
had  "  a  cry  quite  diffcr<'nt  to 
that  of  the  domestic  fowl."  and 
their  appe;trance  was  soiucwlmt 
changed.  Hence  it  is  not  a  little 
doubtful.  notwithstanding  the 
statement  of  the  natives,  whether 
these  birds  re.illy  were  fowls. 
That  the  fowl  h;is  lu'coine  feral 
on  several  islands  is  certain.  Mr. 
Fry.  a  very  capable  judge,  in- 
formed Mr.  Layard.  in  a  letter, 
that  the  fowLs  which  have  run 
wild  on  Ascension  •'  had  nearly 
all  got  back  to  their  i)rimitiv(> 
colours,  red  and  black  cocks,  and 
hens."  Hut  unfitr- 
do  not  know  the  eol- 
poultry  which  were 
Fdwls  have  become- 
feral  on  the  Nieobar  Islands 
(Blvth  in  the  '  Indian  Field.'  Isr.S. 
p.  02).  and  in  the  Ladnines  (An- 
son's Vovaire).  Thosf  t'onud  in 
the  Pellew  Islands  (Grawfnrd)  are 
believed  to  be  ft>ral:  and  lastly, 
it  is  asserted  that  they  have  be- 
come feral  in  New  Zealand,  biit 
whether  this  is  correct  1  know- 
not. 


smok.v-grey 
tunately  we 
our    of    the 
turned   out. 


^46  FOWLS.  Chap.  YII. 

Greek  writers  speak  of  the  fowl  as  a  Persian  bird,  this  prob- 
ably merely  indicates  its  line  of  importation.  For  the  discov- 
ery of  unknown  species  we  must  look  to  India,  to  the  Indo- 
Chinese  countries,  and  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago.  The  southern  portion  of  China  is  the  most 
Jikely  country ;  but  as  Mr.  Blyth  informs  me,  skins  have  been 
exported  from  China  during  a  long  period,  and  living  birds 
are  largely  kept  there  in  aviaries,  so  that  any  native  species 
of  Gallus  would  probably  have  become  known.  Mr.  Birch,  of 
the  British  Museum,  has  translated  for  me  passages  from  a 
Chinese  Encyclopaedia  published  in  1609,  but  compiled  from 
more  ancient  do3uments,  in  which  it  is  said  that  fowls  are 
creatures  of  the  West,  and  were  introduced  into  the  East  (i.  e. 
China)  in  a  dynasty  1400  B.C.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of 
so  ancient  a  date,  w^e  see  that  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Indian 
regions  were  formerly  considered  by  the  Chinese  as  the  source 
of  the  domestic  fowl.  From  these  several  considerations  we 
must  look  to  the  present  metropolis  of  the  genus,  namely,  to 
the  south  -  eastern  parts  of  Asia,  for  the  discovery  of 
species  which  were  formerly  domesticated,  but  are  now  un- 
known in  the  wild  state;  and  the  most  experienced  orni- 
thologists do  not  consider  it  probable  that  such  species  will 
be  discovered. 

In  considering  whether  the  domestic  breeds  are  descended 
from  one  species,  namely,  G.  hankiva,  or  from  several,  we 
must  not  quite  overlook,  though  we  must  not  exaggerate,  the 
importance  of  the  test  of  fertility.  Most  of  our  domestic 
breeds  have  been  so  often  crossed,  and  their  mongrels  so 
largely  kept,  that  it  is  almost  certain,  if  any  degree  of  infertil- 
ity had  existed  between  them,  it  would  have  been  detected. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  four  known  species  of  Gallus  when 
crossed  with  each  other,  or  when  crossed,  with  the  exception 
of  G.  hankiva,  with  the  domestic  fowl,  produce  infertile 
hybrids. 

Finally,  we  have  not  such  good  evidence  with  fowls  as 
with  pigeons,  of  all  the  breeds  having  descended  from  a 
single  primitive  stock.  In  both  cases  the  argument  of  fer- 
tility must  go  for  something;  in  both  we  have  the  improba- 
bility of  man  having  succeeded  in  ancient  times  in  thorough- 
ly domesticating  several  supposed  species, — most  of  these  sup- 


Chap.  VII.  REVERSION  AND  ANALOGOUS  REVERSION.    247 

posed  species  being  extremely  abnormal  as  compared  with 
their  natural  allies,— all  being  now  either  unknown  or  ex- 
tinct, though  the  parent-form  of  no  other  domesticated  bird 
has  been  lost.  But  in  searching  for  the  supposed  parent- 
stocks  of  the  various  breeds  of  the  pigeon,  we  were  enabli-d 
to  confine  our  search  to  species  having  peculiar  habits  of  life; 
wdiilst  with  fowls  there  is  nothing  in  their  habits  in  any 
marked  manner  distinct  from  those  of  other  gallinaceous 
birds.  In  the  case  of  pigeons,  I  have  shown  that  purely- 
bred  birds  of  every  race,  and  the  crossed  offspring  of  distinct 
races  frequently  resemble,  or  revert  to,  the  wild  rock-pigeon 
in  general  colour  and  in  each  characteristic  mark.  With 
fowls  we  have  facts  of  a  similar  nature,  but  less  strongly  pro- 
nounced, which  we  will  now  discuss. 

Reversion  and  Analogous  Variation. — Purely-bred  Game, 
Malay,  Cochin,  Dorking,  Bantam,  and,  as  I  hear  from  :Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  Silk  Fowls,  may  frequently  or  occasionally  be 
met  with,  which  are  almost  identical  in  plumage  with  the 
wdld  G.  hankiva.  This  is  a  fact  w^ell  deserving  attention, 
when  we  reflect  that  these  breeds  rank  amongst  the  most  dis- 
tinct. Fowls  thus  coloured  are  called  by  amateurs  black- 
breasted  reds.  Hamburghs  properly  have  a  very  different 
plumage;  nevertheless,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me,  "the 
great  difficulty  in  breeding  cocks  of  the  golden-spangled  va- 
riety is  their  tendency  to  have  black  breasts  and  red  backs. 
The  males  of  white  Bantams  and  white  Cochins,  as  they  come 
to  maturity,  often  assume  a  yellowish  or  saffron  tinge;  and 
the  longer  neck  hackles  of  black  Bantam  cocks,"  "'*  when  two 
or  three  years  old,  not  uncommonly  become  ruddy ;  these  lat- 
ter Bantams  occasionally  "  even  moult  brassy-winged,  or  ac- 
tually red-shouldered."  So  that  in  these  several  cases  we 
see  a  plain  tendency  to  reversion  to  the  hues  of  G.  hankiva, 
even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  individual  bird.  With  Span- 
ish, Polish,  pencilled  Hamburgh,  silver-spangled  Hamburgh 
fowls,  and  with  some  other  less  common  breeds,  I  have  never 
heard  of  a  black-breasted  red  bird  having  appeared. 

From  my  experience  with  pigeons,  I  made  the  following 

28  Mr.    Hewitt,    in    '  The    Poultry    Book,'    by    W.    B.    Tegetmeier, 
1866,  p.  248. 


-248  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

crosses.  I  first  killed  all  my  own  poultry,  no  others  living 
near  my  house,  and  then  procured,  by  Mr.  Tegetmeir's  assist- 
ance, a  first-rate  black  Spanish  cock,  and  hens  of  the  fol- 
lowing pure  breeds, — white  Game,  white  Cochin,  silver- 
spangled  Polish,  silver-spangled  Hamburgh,  silver-pencilled 
Hamburgh,  and  white  Silk.  In  none  of  these  breeds  is  there 
a  trace  of  red,  nor  when  kept  pure  have  I  ever  heard  of  the 
appearance  of  a  red  feather;  though  such  an  occurrence 
would  perhaps  not  be  very  improbable  with  white  Games 
^nd  white  Cochins.  Of  the  many  chickens  reared  from  the 
^bove  six  crosses  the  majority  were  black,  both  in  the  down 
and  in  the  first  plumage;  some  were  white,  and  a  very  few 
were  mottled  black  and  white.  In  one  lot  of  eleven  mixed 
eggs  from  the  white  Game  and  M^hite  Cochin  by  the  black 
Spanish  cock,  seven  of  the  chickens  were  w^iite,  and  only  four 
black.  I  mention  this  fact  to  show  that  whiteness  of  plumage 
is  strongly  inherited,  and  that  the  belief  in  the  prepotent 
power  in  the  male  to  transmit  his  colour  is  not  always  correct. 
The  chickens  were  hatched  in  the  spring,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  August  several  of  the  young  cocks  began  to  exhibit  a 
change,  which  with  some  of  them  increased  during  the  fol- 
lowing years.  Thus  a  young  male  bird  from  the  silver- 
ispangled  Polish  hen  was  in  its  first  plumage  coal-black,  and 
•combined  in  its  comb,  crest,  wattle,  and  beard,  the  characters 
■of  both  parents ;  but  when  two  years  old  the  secondary  wing- 
feathers  became  largely  and  symmetrically  marked  with 
white,  and  w^herever  in  G.  hanhiva  the  hackles  are  red,  they 
were  in  this  bird  greenish-black  along  the  shaft,  narrowly 
bordered  with  brownish-black,  and  this  again  broadly  bordered 
with  very  pale  yellowish-brown;  so  that  in  general  appear- 
.ance  the  plumage  had  become  pale-coloured  instead  of  black. 
In  this  case,  with  advancing  age  there  was  a  great  change, 
but  no  reversion  to  the  red  colour  of  G.  hankiva. 

A  cock  with  a  regular  rose  comb  derived  either  from  the 
•spangled  or  pencilled  silver  Hamburgh  w^as  likewise  at  first 
=quite  black;  but  in  less  than  a  year  the  neck-hackles,  as  in 
the  last  case,  became  whitish,  whilst  those  on  the  loins  as- 
sumed a  decided  reddish  yellow  tint;  and  here  we  see  the 
first  symptom  of  reversion ;  this  likewise  occurred  wath  some 
other  young  cocks,  which  need  not  here  be  described.     It  has 


Chap.  VII.  REVERSIOX  AND  ANALOGOUS  REVERSION.    24:9 

also  been  recorded''  by  a  breeder,  that  he  crossed  two  sil- 
ver-pencilled Hamburgh  hens  with  a  Spanish  cock,  and 
reared  a  number  of  chickens,  all  of  which  were  black,  tlie 
cocks  having  golden  and  the  hens  brownish  hackles;  so 
that  in  this  instance  likewise  there  was  a  clear  tendency 
to  reversion. 

Two  young  cocks  from  my  white  Game  hen  were  at  first 
snow  white;  of  these,  one  subsequently  assumed  pale  orange- 
coloured  hackles,  chiefly  on  the  loins,  and  the  other  an 
abundance  of  fine  orange  red  hackles  on  the  neck,  loins,  and 
upper  wing-coverts.  Here  again  we  have  a  more  decided, 
though  partial,  reversion  to  the  colours  of  G.  hankiva.  This 
second  cock  was  in  fact  coloured  like  an  inferior  "  pile  Game 
cock;" — now  this  sub-breed  can  be  produced,  as  I  am  in- 
formed by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  by  crossing  a  black-breasted  red 
Game  cock  with  a  white  Game  hen,  and  the  "  pile "  sub- 
breed  thus  produced  can  afterwards  be  truly  propagated.  So 
that  we  have  the  curious  fact  of  the  glossy-black  Spanish  cock 
and  the  black-breasted  red  Game  cock  when  crossed  with 
white  Game  hens  producing  offspring  of  nearly  the  same 
colours. 

I  reared  several  birds  from  the  white  Silk  hen  by  the 
Spanish  cock :  all  were  coal-black,  and  all  plainly  showed 
their  parentage  in  having  blackish  combs  and  bones;  none 
inherited  the  so-called  silky  feathers,  and  the  non-inherit- 
ance of  this  character  has  been  observed  by  others.  The  hens 
never  varied  in  their  plumage.  As  the  young  cocks  grew 
old,  one  of  them  assumed  yellowish-white  hackles,  and  thus 
resembled  in  a  considerable  degree  the  cross  from  the  Ham- 
burgh hen;  the  other  became  a  gorgeous  bird,  so  much  so 
that  an  acquaintance  had  it  preserved  and  stuffed  simply  from 
its  beauty.  When  stalking  about  it  closely  resembled  the 
wild  Gallus  hankiva,  but  with  the  red  feathers  rather  darker. 
On  close  comparison  one  considerable  difference  presented 
itself,  namely,  that  the  primary  and  secondary  wing-feathers 
were  edged  with  greenish-black,  instead  of  being  edged,  as  in 
G.  hanhiva,  with  fulvous  and  red  tints.  The  space,  also, 
across  the  back,  which  bears  dark-green  feathers,  was  broader, 
and  the  comb  was  blackish.  In  all  other  respects,  even  in 
23  '  Journal  of  Horticulture,'  Jan.  14th.  18G2,  p.  325. 


250  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

trifling  details  of  plumage,  there  was  the  closest  accordance. 
Altogether  it  was  a  marvellous  sight  to  compare  this  bird 
first  with  G.  hankiva,  and  then  with  its  father,  the  glossy 
green-black  Spanish  cock,  and  with  its  diminutive  mother, 
the  white  Silk  hen.  This  case  of  reversion  is  the  more  ex- 
traordinary as  the  Spanish  breed  has  long  been  known  to 
breed  true,  and  no  instance  is  on  record  of  its  throwing  a 
single  red  feather.  The  Silk  hen  likewise  breeds  true,  and 
is  believed  to  be  ancient,  for  Aldrovandi,  before  1600,  alludes 
probably  to  this  breed,  and  described  it  as  covered  with  wool. 
It  is  so  peculiar  in  many  characters  that  some  writers  have 
considered  it  as  specifically  distinct ;  yet,  as  we  now  see,  when 
crossed  with  the  Spanish  fowl,  it  yields  offspring  closely 
resembling  the  wild  G.  hanJciva. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  has  been  so  kind  as  to  repeat,  at  my 
request,  the  cross  between  a  Spanish  cock  and  Silk  hen,  and 
he  obtained  similar  results;  for  he  thus  raised,  besides  a 
black  hen,  seven  cocks,  all  of  which  were  dark  bodied  with 
more  or  less  orange-red  hackles.  In  the  ensuing  year  he 
paired  the  black  hen  with  one  of  her  brothers,  and  raised 
three  young  cocks,  all  coloured  like  their  father,  and  a  black 
hen  mottled  with  white. 

The  hens  from  the  six  above-described  crosses  showed 
hardly  any  tendency  to  revert  to  the  mottled-brown  plumage 
of  the  female  G.  hankiva:  one  hen,  however,  from  the  white 
Cochin,  which  was  at  first  coal-black,  became  slightly  brown 
or  sooty.  Several  hens,  which  were  for  a  long  time  snow- 
w^hite,  acquired  as  they  grew  old  a  few  black  feathers.  A 
hen  from  the  white  Game,  which  was  for  a  long  time  entirely 
black  glossed  with  green,  when  two  years  old  had  some  of 
the  primary  wing-feathers  greyish-white,  and  a  multitude  of 
feathers  over  her  body  narrowly  and  symmetrically  tipped  or 
laced  with  white.  I  had  expected  that  some  of  the  chickens 
whilst  covered  with  down  would  have  assumed  the  longitu- 
dinal stripes  so  general  with  gallinaceous  birds ;  but  this  did 
not  occur  in  a  single  instance.  Two  or  three  alone  were 
reddish-brown  about  their  heads.  I  was  unfortunate  in 
losing  nearly  all  the  white  chickens  from  the  first  crosses;  so 
that  black  prevailed  with  the  grandchildren;  but  they  were 
much  diversified  in  colour,  some  being  sooty,  others  mottled. 


Chap.  VII.  REVERSION  AND  ANALOGOUS  VARIATION.    251 

and  one  blackish  chicken  had  its  feathers  oddly  tipped  and 
barred  with  brown. 

I  will  here  add  a  few  miscellaneous  facts  connected  with 
reversion,  and  with  the  law  of  analogous  variation.  This  law 
implies,  as  stated  in  a  previous  chapter,  that  the  varieties  of 
one  species  frequently  mock  distinct  but  allied  species;  and 
this  fact  is  explained,  according  to  the  views  which  I  main- 
tain, on  the  principle  of  allied  species  having  descended  from 
one  primitive  form.'  The  white  Silk  fowl  with  black  skin 
and  bones  degenerates,  as  has  been  observed  by  Mr.  Hewitt 
and  Mr.  K.  Orton,  in  our  climate;  that  is,  it  reverts  to  the 
ordinary  colour  of  the  common  fowl  in  its  skin  and  bones, 
due  care  having  been  taken  to  prevent  any  cross.  In  Ger- 
many'"  a  distinct  breed  with  black  bones,  and  with  black, 
not  silky  plumage,  has  likewise  been  observed  to  degenerate. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that,  when  distinct  breeds  are 
crossed,  fowls  are  frequently  produced  with  their  feathers 
marked  or  pencilled  by  narrow  transverse  lines  of  a  darker 
colour.  This  may  be  in  part  explained  by  direct  reversion  to 
the  parent-form,  the  Bankiva  hen;  for  this  bird  has  all  its 
upper  plumage  finely  mottled  with  dark  and  rufous  browm, 
with  the  mottling  partially  and  obscurely  arranged  in  trans- 
verse lines.  But  the  tendency  to  pencilling  is  probably  much 
strengthened  by  the  law  of  analogous  variation,  for  the  hens 
of  some  other  species  of  Gallus  are  more  plainly  pencilled, 
and  the  hens  of  many  gallinaceous  birds  belonging  to  other 
genera,  as  the  partridge,  have  pencilled  feathers.  Mr.  Teget- 
meier has  also  remarked  to  me  that,  although  with  domestic 
pigeons  we  have  so  great  a  diversity  of  colouring,  we  never 
see  either  pencilled  or  spangled  feathers;  and  this  fact  is  in- 
telligible on  the  law  of  analogous  variation,  as  neither  the 
wild  rock-pigeon  nor  any  closely  allied  species  has  such 
feathers.  The  frequent  appearance  of  pencilling  in  crossed 
birds  probably  accounts  for  the  existence  of  "  cuckoo  "  sub- 
breeds  in  the  Game,  Polish,  Dorking,  Cochin,  Andalusian, 
and  Bantam  breeds.  The  plumage  of  these  birds  is  slaty- 
blue   or   grey,    with   each   feather   transversely   barred   with 

30  '  Die    Hiihnpr-    unci    Pfauen-  '  Poultrv  Book,'  by  W.   B.  Togot- 

ziicht,'  Ulm,  1827.  s.  17.     For  Mr.  meler.     1800.    p.    222.      I    am    in- 

Hewitt's   statement   with   respect  debtee!  to  Mr.   Orton  for  a  letter 

to   the   white    Silk   fowl,    sec   the  on  the  same  subject. 


2o2  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

darker  lines,  so  as  to  resemble  in  some  degree  the  plumage 
of  the  cuckoo.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  considering  that  the 
male  of  no  species  of  Gallus  is  in  the  least  barred,  that  the 
<3Uckoo-like  plumage  has  often  been  transferred  to  the  male, 
more  especially  in  the  cuckoo  Dorking;  and  the  fact  is  all 
the  more  singular,  as  in  gold-  and  silver-pencilled  Ham- 
hurghs,  in  which  pencilling  is  characteristic  of  the  breed,  the 
male  is  hardly  at  all  pencilled,  this  kind  of  plumage  being 
■confined  to  the  female. 

Another  case  of  analogous  variation  is  the  occurrence  of 
spangled  sub-breeds  of  Hamburgh,  Polish,  Malay,  and  Ban- 
tam fowls.  Spangled  feathers  have  a  dark  mark,  properly 
"Crescent-shaped,  on  their  tips;  whilst  pencilled  feathers  have 
several  transverse  bars.  The  spangling  cannot  be  due  to  re- 
version to  G.  hanhiva;  nor  does  it  often  follow,  as  I  hear  from 
Mr.  Tegetmeier,  from  crossing  distinct  breeds;  but  it  is  a 
case  of  analogous  variation,  for  many  gallinaceous  birds  have 
spangled  feathers, — for  instance,  the  common  pheasant. 
Hence  spangled  breeds  are  often  called  "  pheasant  "-fowls. 
Another  case  of  analogous  variation  in  several  domestic 
breeds  is  inexplicable;  it  is,  that  the  chickens,  whilst  covered 
Avith  dowm,  of  the  black  Spanish,  black  Game,  black  Polish, 
and  black  Bantam,  all  have  white  throats  and  breasts,  and 
often  have  some  white  on  their  wings.^^  The  editor  of  the 
*  Poultry  Chronicle  '  ^"  remarks  that  all  the  breeds  which  prop- 
•erly  have  red  ear-lappets  occasionally  produce  birds  with 
white  ear-lappets.  This  remark  more  especially  applies  to 
the  Game  breed,  which  of  all  comes  nearest  to  the  G.  hankiva; 
and  we  have  seen  that  with  this  species  living  in  a  state  of 
nature,  the  ear-lappets  vary  in  colour,  being  red  in  the  Ma- 
layan countries,  and  generally,  but  not  invariably,  white  in 
India. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  my  subject,  I  may  repeat  that 
there  exists  one  widely-ranging,  varying,  and  common  species 
of  Gallus,  namely,  G.  hankiva,  which  can  be  tamed,  pro- 
duces fertile  offspring  when  crossed  with  common  fowls, 
and  closely  resembles  in  its  whole  structure,  plumage,  and 

'^  Dixon,  '  Ornamental  and  Do-        Ferguson     on      '  Prize      Poultry,' 
TOestic    Poultry,'    pages    253,    324,        page  260. 
and    335.       For    Game-fowls,     see  =*-  '  Poultry   Chronicle,'  ii.    71. 


Chap.  VII.   REVERSION  AND  AXALOGOUS  VARIATION.     053 

voice  the  Game  breed;  hence  it  may  be  safely  ranked  as  the 
parent   of   this,   the   most   typical   domesticated    breed.     We 
have   seen   that   there   is    much   difficulty    in    believing    that 
other,  now  unknown,  species  have  been  the  parents  of  the 
other  domestic  breeds.     We  know  that  all  the  breeds  are  most 
closely  allied,  as  shown  by  their  similarity  in  most  points 
of  structure  and  in  habits,  and  by  the  analogous  manner  in 
which   they   vary.     W^e  have   also   seen   that   several   of   the 
most   distinct   breeds   occasionally   or  habituallj'   closely    re- 
semble in  plumage  G.  hankiva,  and  that  the  crossed  offspring 
of  other  breeds,  which  are  not  thus  coloured,  show  a  stronger 
or  weaker  tendency  to  revert  to  this  same  plumage.     Some  of 
the  breeds,  which  appear  the  most  distinct  and  the  least  likely 
to  have  proceeded  from   G.   hankiva,  such  as  Polish  fowls, 
with  their  protuberant  and  little  ossified  skulls,  and  Cochins, 
with  their  imperfect  tail  and  small  wings,  bear  in  these  char- 
acters the  plain  marks  of  their  artificial  origin.     We  know 
well  that  of  late  years  methodical  selection  has  greatly  im- 
proved and  fixed  many  characters ;  and  we  have  every  reason 
to  believe  that  unconscious  selection,  carried  on  for  many 
generations,  will  have  steadily  augmented  each  new  peculi- 
arity, and  thus  have  given  rise  to  new  breeds.     As  soon  as 
two  or  three  breeds  were  once  formed,  crossing  would  come 
into  play  in  changing  their  character  and  in  increasing  their 
number.     Brahma   Pootras,  according  to  an  account   lately 
published  in  America,  offer  a  good  instance  of  a  breed,  lately 
formed  by  a  cross,  which  can  be  truly  propagated.     The  well- 
known  Sebright  Bantams  offer  another  and  similar  instance. 
Hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  not  only  the  Game-breed  but 
that  all  our  breeds  are  probably  the  descendants  of  the  Malay- 
an or  Indian  variety  of  G.  hankiva.     If  so,  this  species  has 
varied  greatly  since  it  was  first  domesticated;  but  there  has 
been  ample  time,  as  we  shall  now  show. 

History  of  the  Fowl—Rutimeycr  found  no  remains  of  the 

fowl  in  the  ancient  Swiss  lake-dwellings;  but,  according  to 

Jeitteles,''  such  have  certainly  since  been  found  associated 

33  '  Die    vorgeschichtlichen    Al-       Thoutmousis  HI.   (144.-,  i?   r.):  but 

Dr.    Piekerinj?,    in    his    •  Races   of  doubts  whether  the  li^ure  cau  be 

Man,'   ISr.O,   p.   374.   says  that   the  identified   as  the  head  of  a   f ..  ^  . 

head   and   neVk   of  a   fowl    is   ear-  Some    caution    is    'Y'^^,^'-P..f    ll^ 

Tied    in    a    Tribute-processiou    to  reference   to   the   uUseuct   01   nt,- 


254 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


with  extinct  animals  and  prehistoric  remains.  It  is,  there- 
fore a  strange  fact  that  the  fowl  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  nor  figured  on  the  ancient  Egyptian  monuments. 
It  is  not  referred  to  by  Homer  or  Hesiod  (about  900  b.c)  ; 
but  it  is  mentioned  by  Theognis  and  Aristophanes  between 
400  and  500  B.C.  It  is  figured  on  some  of  the  Babylonian 
cylinders,  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  B.C.,  of 
which  Mr.  Layard  sent  me  an  impression ;  and  on  the  Harpy 
Tomb  in  Lycia,  about  600  B.c :  so  that  the  fowl  apparently 
reached  Europe  in  a  domesticated  condition  somewhere  about 
the  sixth  century  B.C.  It  had  travelled  still  farther  westward 
by  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  for  it  was  found  in  Britain 
by  Julius  Ca3sar.  In  India  it  must  have  been  domesticated 
when  the  Institutes  of  Manu  were  written,  that  is,  according 
to  Sir  W.  Jones,  1200  B.C.,  but  according  to  the  later  author- 
ity of  Mr.  H.  Wilson,  only  800  B.C.,  for  the  domestic  fowl  is 
forbidden,  whilst  the  wild  is  permitted  to  be  eaten.  If,  as 
before  remarked,  we  may  trust  the  old  Chinese  Encyclopaedia, 
the  fowl  must  have  been  domesticated  several  centuries 
earlier,  as  it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  West 
into  China  1400  B.C. 

Sufiicient  materials  do  not  exist  for  tracing  the  history 
of  the  separate  breeds.  About  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  Columella  mentions  a  five-toed  fighting  breed, 
and  some  provincial  breeds;  but  we  know  nothing  about 
them.  He  also  alludes  to  dwarf  fowls;  but  these  cannot 
have  been  the  same  with  out  Bantams,  which,  as  Mr.  Craw- 
furd  has  shown,  were  imported  from  Japan  into  Bantam  in 
Java.  A  dwarf  fowl,  probably  the  true  Bantam,  is  referred 
to  in  an  old  Japanese  Encyclopsedia,  as  I  am  informed  by 


ures  of  the  fowl  on  the  ancient 
Egyptian  monuments,  on  account 
of  the  strong  and  widely  preva- 
lent prejudice  against  this  bird. 
I  am  informed  by  the  Rev.  S. 
Erhardt  that  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa,  from  4°  to  0°  south 
of  the  equator,  most  of  the  pagan 
tribes  at  the  present  day  hold  the 
fowl  in  aversion.  The  natives  of 
the  Pellew  Islands  would  not  eat 
the  fowl,  nor  wil'  the  Indians  in 
some  parts  of  S.  America.  For 
the  ancient  history  of  the  fowl, 
see  also  Volz,   '  Beitrilge  zur  Cul- 


turgeschichte,'  1852.  s.  77;  and 
Isid.  Geoff roy  St.-Hilaire,  '  Hist. 
Nat.  Gen..'  tom.  iii.  p.  61.  Mr. 
Crawfurd  has  given  an  admirable 
history  of  the  fowl  in  his  paper 
'  On  the  Relation  ol  Domesticated 
Animals  to  Civilisation,'  read  be- 
fore the  Brit.  Assoc,  at  Oxford  in 
1860,  and  since  printed  separate- 
ly. I  quote  from  him  on  the 
Greek  poet  Theognis,  and  on  the 
Harpy  Tomb  described  by  Sir  C. 
Fellowes.  I  quote  from  a  letter 
of  Mr.  Blyth's  with  respect  to 
the  Institutes  of  Manu. 


Chap.  VII.    DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  THE  BREEDS.       255 

Mr.  Birch.  In  the  Chinese  Encyclopaedia  published  in  1596, 
but  compiled  from  various  sources,  some  of  high  antiquity, 
seven  breeds  are  mentioned,  including  what  we  should  now 
call  Jumpers  or  Creepers,  and  likewise  fowls  with  black 
feathers,  bones,  and  flesh.  In  1600  Aldrovandi  describes 
seven  or  eight  breeds  of  fowls,  and  this  is  the  most  ancient 
record  from  which  the  age  of  our  European  breeds  can  be  in- 
ferred. The  Gallus  iurcicus  certainly  seems  to  be  a  pencilled 
Hamburgh;  but  Mr.  Brent,  a  most  capable  judge,  thinks 
that  Aldrovandi  "  evidently  figured  what  he  happened  to  see, 
and  not  the  best  of  the  breed."  Mr.  Brent,  indeed,  considers 
all  Aldrovandi's  fowls  as  of  impure  breed;  but  it  is  a  far 
more  probable  view  that  all  our  breeds  have  been  much 
improved  and  modified  since  his  time;  for,  as  he  went  to  the 
expense  of  so  many  figures,  he  probably  would  have  secured 
characteristic  specimens.  The  Silk  fowl,  however,  probably 
then  existed  in  its  present  state,  as  did  almost  certainly  the 
fowl  with  frizzled  or  reversed  feathers.  Mr.  Dixon  ■**  con- 
siders Aldrovandi's  Paduan  fowl  as  "  a  variety  of  the  Polish," 
whereas  Mr.  Brent  believes  it  to  have  been  more  nearly  allied 
to  the  Malay.  The  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  skull  of 
the  Polish  breed  were  noticed  by  P.  Borelli  in  1656.  I  may 
add  that  in  1737  one  Polish  sub-breed,  viz.,  the  Golden- 
spangled,  was  known;  but  judging  from  Albin's  description, 
the  comb  was  then  larger,  the  crest  of  feathers  much  smaller, 
the  breast  more  coarsely  spotted,  and  the  stomach  and  thighs 
much  blacker:  a  Golden-spangled  Polish  fowl  in  this  con- 
dition would  now  be  of  no  value. 

Differences  in  External  and  Internal  Structure  between 
the  Breeds:  Individual  Variability. — Fowls  have  been  ex- 
posed to  diversified  conditions  of  life,  and  as  we  have  just 
seen  there  has  been  ample  time  for  much  variability  and  for 
the  slow  action  of  unconscious  selection.  As  there  are  good 
grounds  for  believing  that  all  the  breeds  are  descended  from 
Gallus  hanhiva,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  describe  in  some 
detail  the  chief  points  of  difference.  Beginning  with  the 
eggs  and  chickens,  I  will  pass  on  to  their  secondary  sexual 

3*  '  Ornamental    and    Domestic  burslis.  f^cc  Aloni's  '  Natural  Ilis- 

Poultry,'    1847,    p.    185;    for    pas-  tory  of  Birds,' 3  vols.,  with  plates, 

sages  translated  from  Columella,  1731-38. 
see    p.    312.      For    Golden    Ham- 


256  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

characters,  and  then  to  their  differences  in  external  structure 
and  in  the  skeleton.  I  enter  on  the  following  details  chiefly 
to  show  how  variable  almost  every  character  has  become 
under  domestication. 


En<js. — Mr.  Dixon  remarks  ^°  that  "  to  everv  hen  belongs  an 
individual  peculiarity  in  the  form,  colour,  and  size  of  her  egg, 
Avliich  never  changes  during  her  life-time,  so  long  as  she  remains  in 
health,  and  which  is  as  well  known  to  those  wdio  are  in  the  habit 
of  taking  her  produce,  as  the  hand-writing  of  tlieir  nearest  ac- 
quaintance." I  believe  that  this  is  generally  true,  and  that,  if  no 
great  number  of  hens  be  kept,  the  eggs  of  each  can  almost  always 
be  recognised.  Tlie  eggs  of  differently  sized  breeds  naturally 
differ  much  in  size;  but  apparently,  not  always  in  strict  relation 
to  the  size  of  the  hen:  thus  the  Malay  is  a  larger  bird  than  the 
Spanish^  but  gcncrallu  she  produces  not  such  large  eggs;  white 
Bantams  are  said  to  lay  smaller  eggs  than  other  Bantams;  ^''  white 
Cochins,  on  the  other  hand,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  cer- 
tainlv  lav  laraer  eggs  than  buff  Cochins.  The  eggs,  however,  of 
the  different  breeds  vary  considerably  in  character;  for  instance, 
Mr.  Ballance  states  ^'  that  his  Malay  "  pullets  of  last  year  laid  eggs 
equal  in  size  to  those  of  any  duck,  and  other  Malay  hens,  two  or 
three  years  old,  laid  eggs  very  little  larger  than  a  good  sized  Ban- 
tam's egg.  Some  were  as  white  as  a  Spanish  hen's  egg,  and  others 
varied  from  a  light  cream-colour  to  a  deep  rich  buff,  or  even  to  a 
brown."'  The  shape  also  varies,  the  two  ends  being  much  more 
equally  rounded  in  Cochins  than  in  Games  or  Polish.  Spanish 
fowls  lay  smoother  eggs  than  Cochins,  of  wdiicli  the  eggs  are  gen- 
erally granulated.  The  shell  in  this  latter  breed,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  Malays  is  apt  to  be  thicker  than  in  Games  or  Spanish; 
but  the  Minorcas,  a  sub-breed  of  Spanish,  are  said  to  lay  harder 
eggs  than  true  Spanish. '^^  The  colour  dift'ers  considerably, — the 
Cochins  laying  butT-coloured  eggs;  the  Malays  a  paler  variable 
buff:  and  Games  a  still  paler  buff.  It  Avould  appear  that  darker- 
coloured  eggs  characterise  the  breeds  which  have  lately  come  from 
the  East,  or  are  still  closely  allied  to  those  now  living  there.  The 
colour  of  the  yolk,  according  to  Ferguson,  as  w^ell  as  of  the  shell, 
differs  slightly  in  the  sub-breeds  of  the  Game.  I  am  also  in- 
formed by  ]\I]\  Brent  that  dark  partridge-coloured  Cochin  hens 
lay  darker  coloured  eggs  than  the  other  Cochin  sub-breeds.  The 
flavour  and  richness  of  the  egg  certainlv  differ  in  different  breeds. 
The  productiveness  of  the  several  breeds  is  very  different.  S  tanish, 
Polish,  and  Hamburgh  hens  have  lost  the  incubating  instinct. 

35  '  Ornamental    and    Domestic  2.3.5    on    the    eggs    of    the    Game- 
Poultry,'  p.  1.52.  fowl. 

30  Ferguson     on     '  Rare     Prize  ^'  See   '  Poultry    P>ook.'    by   Mr. 

Poultry,'   p.    297.      This   writer,    I  Tegetmeier.  1.860.  pp.  81  and  78. 
am     informed,     cannot     generally  ^s'Tiig  (Cottage  Gardener,' Oct., 

be    trusted.       He    gives,     howev-  18.55,   p.   13.      On   the   thinness   of 

er,     figures    and    much     informa-  the  eggs  of  Game-fowls,  see  Mow- 

tion    on    eggs.      Ste    pp.    34    and  bray  on  Poultry,  7th  edit.,  p.  13. 


Chap.  VII.     DIFFEREXCES  BETWEEN  THE  HIJEEDS.        ^'ol 

Chlckcm.— As  the  young  of  almost  all  pillinac-eous  birds,  even 
of  the  black  eurassow  and  black  grouse,  whilst  covcrcl  with  (1o\n  n 
are  longitudinally  striped  on  the  back,— of  which  character  when 
adult,  neither  sex  retains  a  trace,— it  might  have  been  exVected 
that  the  chickens  of  all  our  domestic  fowls  would  have  been  simi- 
larly striped.^'''  This  could,  however,  hardly  have  been  expected 
when  the  adult  plumage  in  both  sexes  has*  undergone  so  great  a 
change  as  to  be  wholly  white  or  black.  In  white  fowls  of  various 
breeds  the  chickens  are  uniformly  yellowish  wjiite,  passin-^  in  the 
black-boned  Silk  fowl  •  into  bright  canary-velhnv'.  This"is  also 
generally  the  ease  with  the  chickens  of*^  white  Cochins,  but  I 
hear  from  :\lr.  Zurhost  that  they  are  sometimes  of  a  bull''  or  oak 
colour,  and  that  ail  those  of  this  latter  colour,  which  were  watche<l 
turned  out  males.  The  chickens  of  but!"  Cochins  are  of  a  golden- 
yellow,  easily  distinguishable  from  the  paler  tint  of  the*^  white 
Cochins,  and  are  often  longitudinally  streaked  with  dark  shades: 
the  chickens  of  silver-cinnamon  Cochins  are  almost  alwavs  of  a 
buff  colour.  The  chickens  of  the  white  Game  and  white  JJorking 
breeds,  when  held  in  particular  lights,  sometimes  exhibit  (on  the 
authority  of  Mr.  IJrent)  faint  traces  of  longitudinal  stripes.  Fowls 
winch  are  entirely  black,  namely,  Spanish.'black  (lame,  black  Pol- 
ish, and  black  Bantams,  display  a  new  character,  for  their  chick- 
ens have  their  breasts  and  throats  more  or  less  white,  with  some- 
times a  little  white  elsewhere.  Spanish  chickens,  also,  occasionally 
(Brent)  ha\e,  ^\  here  the  down  was  white,  their  first  true  feathers 
tipped  tor  a  time  with  white.  The  primordially  striped  character 
is  retained  by  the  chickens  of  most  of  the  Game" sub-breeds  (Brent, 
Dixon);  by  Dorkings;  by  the  partridge  and  grouse-coloured  sub- 
breeds  of  Cochins  (Brent),  but  not,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  sub- 
breeds;  by  the  pheasant-Malay  (Dixon),  but  apparently  not  (at 
which  I  am  much  surprised)  bv  other  Malavs.  The  following 
breeds  and  sub-breeds  are  barely,  or  not  at  all,  longitudinally 
striped:  viz.,  gold  and  silver  i)encilled  Hamburghs,  which  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  each  other  (Brent)  in  the  down, 
both  having  a  few  dark  spots  on  the  head  and  rump,  "with  occa- 
sionally a  longitudinal  stripe  (Dixon)  on  the  back  of  the  neck. 
I  have  seen  only  one  chicken  of  the  silver-spangled  Hamburgh, 
and  this  was  obscurely  striped  along  the  back.  Gold-spangled 
Polish  chickens  (Tegetmeier)  are  of  a  Avarm  russet  brown;  and 
silver-spangled  Polish  chickens  are  grey,  sometimes  (Dixon)  wiih 
dashes  of  ochre  on  the  head,  wings,  and  breast.  Cuckoo  and  blue- 
dun  fowls  (Dixon)  are  grey  in  the  down.  The  chickens  of  Se- 
bright Bantams  (Dixon)  are  uniformly  dark  brown,  whilst  those 
of   the   brown-breasted   red   Game   Bantam   are   black,    with    some 

==^  My     information,     wliich     is  has    Mr.    Te.irotnieior.      I    will    in 

very   far  from   perfect,    on    cliiclv-  each  case  mark   my  autliorlty   l)y 

ens  in  the  down,  is  derived  cliietlv  Die   name    williiii    liracktMs.      I^'or 

from     Mr.     Dixon's     '  Ornamental  the  chickens  ot  wliile  Silk-fowls, 

and    Domestic    Poultry.'      Mr.    B.  see  Togetmeier's   '  i'oultry   Book,*- 

P.   Brent  has  also   cohimnnicated  1866,  p.  221. 
to   me   many   facts   by   letter,   as 


258  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

white  on  the  throat  and  breast.  From  these  facts  we  see  that 
young  chickens  of  the  different  breeds,  and  even  of  the  same  main 
breed,  differ  much  in  tlieir  downy  plumage;  and,  although  longi- 
tudinal stripes  characterise  the  young  of  all  wild  gallinaceous  birds, 
they  disappear  in  several  domestic  breeds.  Perhaps  it  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  general  rule  that  the  more  the  adult  plumage  differs 
from  that  of  the  adult  G.  hankiva,  the  more  completely  the  chick- 
ens have  lost  their  stripes. 

With  respect  to  the  period  of  life  at  which  the  characters 
proper  to  each  breed  first  appear,  it  is  obvious  that  such 
structures  as  additional  toes  must  be  formed  long  before  birth. 
In  Polish  fowls,  the  extraordinary  protuberance  of  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  skull  is  well  developed  before  the  chickens 
<3ome  out  of  the  egg ;  *°  but  the  crest,  w^hich  is  supported  on 
the  protuberance,  is  at  first  feebly  developed,  nor  does  it  at- 
tain its  full  size  until  the  second  year.  The  Spanish  cock  is 
pre-eminent  for  his  magnificent  comb,  and  this  is  developed  at 
an  unusually  early  age;  so  that  the  young  males  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  females  when  only  a  few  weeks  old,  and 
therefore  earlier  than  in  other  breeds ;  they  likewise  crow  very 
early,  namely,  when  about  six  weeks  old.  In  the  Dutch  sub- 
breed  of  the  Spanish  fowl  the  white  ear-lappets  are  developed 
earlier  than  in  the  common  Spanish  breed."  'Cochins  are 
characterised  by  a  small  tail,  and  in  the  young  cocks  the  tail 
is  developed  at  an  unusually  late  period.*^  Game  fowls  are 
notorious  for  their  pugnacity;  and  the  young  cocks  crow, 
clap  their  little  wings,  and  fight  obstinately  with  each  other, 
•even  w^hilst  under  their  mother's  care."  "  I  have  often  had," 
says  one  author,"  "  w^hole  broods,  scarcely  feathered,  stone- 
blind  from  fighting;  the  rival  couples  moping  in  corners, 
and  renewing  their  battles  on  obtaining  the  first  ray  of  light." 
The  weapons  and  pugnacity  of  all  male  gallinaceous  birds 
evidently  serve  the  purpose  of  gaining  possession  of  the  fe- 
males ;  so  that  the  tendency  in  our  Game  chickens  to  fight  at 
an  extremely  early  age  is  not  only  useless,  but  injurious,  as 

*°  As  I   hear  from   Mr.    Teget-  Tegetmeier's       '  Poultry      Book,' 
meier;    see    also     '  Proc.     Zoolog.  1866,  pp.  105  and  121. 
Soc.,'   1856,   p.    366.      On   the   late  *-  Dixon,   '  Ornamental  and  Do- 
development     of     the     crest,     see  mestie   Poultry,'   p.   273. 
'Poultry  Chronicle,'   vol.   ii.   page  "  Ferguson' on  Rare  and  Prize 
132.  Poultry,   p.  261. 

*i  On   these   points,   see   '  Poul-  **  Mowbray     on     Poultry,     7th 

try  Chronicle,'  vol.  iii.  p.  166;  and  edit.,  1834,  p.  13. 


Chap.  VII.  SEXUAL  DIFFERENCES.  259 

they  suffer  much  from  their  wounds.  The  training'  for 
battle  during  an  early  age  may  be  natural  to  the  wild  Gallus 
hankiva;  but  as  man  during  many  generations  has  gone  on 
selecting  the  most  obstinately  pugnacious  cocks,  it  is  more 
probable  that  their  pugnacity  has  been  unnaturally  increased, 
and  unnaturally  transferred  to  the  young  male  chickens.  In 
the  same  manner,  it  is  probable  that  the  extraordinary  de- 
velopment of  the  comb  in  the  Spanish  cock  has  been  unin- 
tentionally transferred  to  the  young  cocks;  for  fanciers 
would  not  care  whether  their  young  birds  had  large  combs, 
but  would  select  for  breeding  the  adults  which  had  the  finest 
combs,  whether  or  not  developed  at  an  early  period.  The 
last  point  which  need  here  be  noticed  is  that,  though  the 
chickens  of  Spanish  and  Malay  fowls  are  well  covered  with 
down,  the  true  feathers  are  acquired  at  an  unusually  late  age ; 
so  that  for  a  time  the  young  birds  are  partially  naked,  and 
are  liable  to  suffer  from  cold. 

Secondary  Sexual  Characters. — The  two  sexes  in  the 
parent-form,  the  Gallus  hankiva,  differ  much  in  colour.  In 
our  domestic  breeds  the  difference  is  never  greater,  but  is 
often  less,  and  varies  much  in  degree  even  in  the  sub-breeds 
of  the  same  main  breed.  Thus  in  certain  Game  fowls  the 
difference  is  as  great  as  in  the  parent-form,  whilst  in  the 
black  and  white  sub-breeds  there  is  no  difference  in  plumage. 
Mr.  Brent  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  two  strains  of  black- 
breasted  red  Games,  of  which  the  cocks  could  not  be  dis- 
tinguished, w^hilst  the  hens  in  one  were  partridge-brown  and 
in  the  other  fawn-brown.  A  similar  case  has  been  observed 
in  the  strains  of  the  brown-breasted  red  Game.  The  hen  of 
the  "  duck-winged  Game  "  is  "  extremely  beautiful,"  and  dif- 
fers much  from  the  hens  of  all  the  other  Game  sub-breeds; 
but  generally,  as  with  the  blue  and  grey  Game  and  with  some 
sub-varieties  of  the  pile-game,  a  moderately  close  relation 
may  be  observed  between  the  males  and  females  in  the  varia- 
tion of  their  plumage.*^'  A  similar  relation  is  also  evident 
when  we  compare  the  several  varieties  of  Cochins.  In  the 
two  sexes  of  gold-  and  silver-spangled  and  of  buff  Polish  fowls, 

«  Bee    the    full    description    of       ISGfi,   p.   131.     For   Cuckoo   Dork- 
the  varieties  of  the   Gume-breecl.        iugs,  p.  97. 
in    Tegetmeier's    '  Poultry    Book,' 

18 


260 


FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 


there  is  much  general  similaritj^  in  the  colouring  and  marks 
of  the  whole  plumage,  excepting  of  course  in  the  hackles, 
crest,  and  beard.  In  spangled  Hamburghs,  there  is  likewise 
a  considerable  degree  of  similarity  between  the  two  sexes. 
In  pencilled  Hamburghs,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  much 
dissimilarity;  the  pencilling  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
hens  being  almost  absent  in  the  males  of  both  the  golden  and 
silver  varieties.  But,  as  we  have  already  seen,  it  cannot  be 
given  as  a  general  rule  that  male  fowls  never  have  pencilled 
feathers,  for  Cuckoo  Dorkings  are  "  remarkable  from  having 
nearly  similar  markings  in  both  sexes." 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  males  in  certain  sub-breeds 
have  lost  some  of  their  secondary  masculine  characters,  and 
from  their  close  resemblance  in  plumage  to  the  females,  are 
often  called  Hennies.  There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion 
wdiether  these  males  are  in  any  degree  sterile;  that  they 
sometimes  are  partially  sterile  seems  clear,*"  but  this  may 
have  been  caused  by  too  close  interbreeding.  That  they  are 
not  quite  sterile,  and  that  the  whole  case  is  widely  different 
from  that  of  old  females  assuming  masculine  characters,  is 
evident  from  several  of  these  hen-like  sub-breeds  having 
been  long  propagated.  The  males  and  females  of  gold-  and 
silver-laced  Sebright  Bantams  can  be  barely  distinguished 
from  each  other,  except  by  their  combs,  wattles,  and  spurs, 
for  they  are  coloured  alike,  and  the  males  have  not  hackles, 
nor  the  flowing  sickle-like  tail-feathers.  A  hen-tailed  sub- 
breed  of  Hamburghs  was  recently  much  esteemed.  There  is 
also  a  breed  of  Game-fowls,  in  which  the  males  and  females 
resemble  each  other  so  closely  that  the  cocks  have  often  mis- 
taken their  hen-feathered  opponents  in  the  cock-pit  for  real 
hens,  and  by  the  mistake  have  lost  their  lives.*'  The  cocks, 
though  dressed  in  the  feathers  of  the  hen,  "  are  high-spirited 
birds,  and  their  courage  has  been  often  proved :  "  an  engrav- 
ing even  has  been  published  of  one  celebrated  hen-tailed  vic- 
tor.    Mr.  Tegetmeier  ***  has  recorded  the  remarkable  case  of  a 

*6  Mr.  Hewitt  in  Tesetmeier's  ■*«  '  Proceedings  of  the  Zoologi- 
'  Poultry  Book,'  1866,  pp.  246  and  cal  Society,'  Marcli,  1801,  page 
156.  For  hen-tailed  game-cocks,  102.  The  engraving  of  the  hen- 
see  p    131.  tailed    cock    just    alluded    to    was 

*' '  The  Field,'  April  20th,  1861.  exhihited    before    the^  Zoological 

The  writer  says  he  has  seen  half-  Society, 
a-dozen  cocks  thus  sacrificed. 


Chap.  VII.  SEXUAL   DIFFERENCES.  201 

brown-breasted  red  Game  cock  which,  after  assuming  its  per- 
fect masculine  plumage,  became  hen-feathered  in  the  autumn 
of  the  following  year;  but  he  did  not  lose  voice,  spurs, 
strength,  nor  productiveness.  This  bird  has  now  retained 
the  same  character  during  five  seasons,  and  has  begot  both 
hen-feathered  and  male-feathered  offspring.  Mr.  Grantley 
F.  Berkeley  relates  the  still  more  singular  case  of  a  celebrated 
strain  of  "  polecat  Game  fowls,"  which  produced  in  nearly 
every  brood  a  single  hen-cock.  "  The  great  peculiarity  in  one 
of  these  birds  was  that  he,  as  the  seasons  succeeded  each 
other,  w^as  not  always  a  hen-cock,  and  not  always  of  the  col- 
our called  the  polecat,  which  is  black.  From  the  polecat  and 
hen-cock  feather  in  one  season  he  moulted  to  a  full  male- 
plumaged  black-breasted  red,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
returned  to  the  former  feather."  *" 

I  have  remarked  in  my  '  Origin  of  Species '  that  secondary 
sexual  characters  are  apt  to  differ  much  in  the  species  of  the 
same  genus,  and  to  be  unusually  variable  in  the  individuals 
of  the  same  species.  So  it  is  with  the  breeds  of  the  fowl,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  as  far  as  the  colour  of  plumage  is  con- 
cerned, and  so  it  is  with  the  secondary  sexual  characters. 
Firstly,  the  comb  differs  much  in  the  various  breeds,""  and  its 
form  is  eminently  characteristic  of  each  kind,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Dorkings,  in  which  the  form  has  not  been  as 
yet  determined  on  by  fanciers,  and  fixed  by  selection.  A 
single,  deeply-serrated  comb  is  the  typical  and  most  common 
form.  It  differs  much  in  size,  being  immensely  developed  in 
Spanish  fowls ;  and  in  a  local  br^ed  called  Red-caps,  it  is 
sometimes  "  upwards  of  three  inches  in  breadth  at  the  front, 
and  more  than  four  inches  in  length,  measured  to  the  end  of 
the  peak  behind."  ^^  In  some  breeds  the  comb  is  double,  and 
when  the  two  ends  are  cemented  together  it  forms  a  "  cup- 
comb  ;  "  in  the  "  rose-comb "  it  is  depressed,  covered  with 
small  projections,  and  produced  backwards;  in  the  horned 
and  creve-coeur  fowl  it  is  produced  into  two  horns;  it  is  triple 
in  the  pea-combed  Brahmas,  short  and  truncated  in  the  Ma- 

49  •  The  Field,'  April  20tli,  1801.  wise   with   respect   to   the  tail   ns 

^*>  I  am   much   indel)ted   to   Mr.  presently  to  bo  ^ivon. 
Brent      for      an      account,      with  "  The   '  Poultry   Hook,'    by   Te- 

sketches,   of  all  the  variations  of  getmeier,  18GG,  p.  234. 
the  comb  known  to  him,  and  like- 


262  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

lays,  and  absent  in  the  Guelderlands.  In  the  tasselled  Game 
a  few  long  feathers  rise  from  the  back  of  the  comb :  and  in 
many  breeds  a  crest  of  feathers  replaces  the  comb.  The  crest, 
when  little  developed,  arises  from  a  fleshy  mass,  but,  when 
much  developed,  from  a  hemispherical  protuberance  of  the 
skull.  In  the  best  Polish  fowls  it  is  so  largely  developed,  that 
I  have  seen  birds  which  could  hardly  pick  up  their  food ;  and 
a  German  writer  asserts  ^^  that  they  are  in  consequence  liable 
to  be  struck  by  hawks.  Monstrous  structures  of  this  kind 
would  thus  be  suppressed  in  a  state  of  nature.  The  wattles, 
also,  vary  much  in  size,  being  small  in  Malays  and  some 
other  breeds;  in  certain  Polish  sub-breeds  they  are  replaced 
by  a  great  tuft  of  feathers  called  a  beard. 

The  hackles  do  not  differ  much  in  the  various  breeds,  but 
are  short  and  stiif  in  Malays,  and  absent  in  Hennies.  As  in 
some  orders  male  birds  display  extraordinarily-shaped  feath- 
ers, such  as  naked  shafts  with  discs  at  the  end,  (tc,  the  fol- 
lowing case  may  be  worth  giving.  In  the  wild  Gallus  hankiva 
and  in  our  domestic  fowls,  the  barbs  which  arise  from  each 
side  of  the  extremities  of  the  hackles  are  naked  or  not  clothed 
with  barbules,  so  that  they  resemble  bristles;  but  Mr.  Brent 
sent  me  some  scapular  hackles  from  a  young  Birchen  Duck- 
wing  Game  cock,  in  which  the  naked  barbs  became  densely  re- 
clothed  with  barbules  towards  their  tips ;  so  that  these  tips, 
which  were  dark  coloured  with  a  metallic  lustre,  were  separa- 
ted from  the  lower  parts  by  a  symmetrically-shaped  transpar- 
ent zone  formed  of  the  naked  portions  of  the  barbs.  Hence 
the  coloured  tips  appeared  like  little  separate  metallic  discs. 

The  sickle-feathers  in  the  tail,  of  which  there  are  three 
pairs,  and  which  are  eminently  characteristic  of  the  male 
sex,  differ  much  in  the  various  breeds.  They  are  scimitar- 
shaped  in  some  Hamburghs,  instead  of  being  long  and  flowing 
as  in  the  typical  breeds.  They  are  extremely  short  in  Co- 
chins, and  are  not  at  all  developed  in  Hennies.  They  are 
carried,  together  with  the  whole  tail,  erect  in  Dorkings  and 
Games;  but  droop  much  in  Malays  and  in  some  Cochins. 
Sultans  are  characterised  by  an  additional  number  of  lateral 
sickle-feathers.  The  spurs  vary  much,  being  placed  higher  or 
lower    on    the    shank;  being    extremely   long    and    sharp    in 

"  '  Die    Hiihner-    und    Pfauenzucht,  1827,  s.  11. 


Chap.  VII.  SEXUAL  DIFFERENCES. 


2G3 


Games,  and  blunt  and  short  in  Cochins.  These  latter  birds 
seem  aware  that  their  spurs  are  not  efficient  weapons;  for 
though  they  occasionally  use  them,  they  more  frequently 
fight,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  by  seizing  and 
shaking  each  other  with  their  beaks.  In  some  Indian  Game 
cocks,  received  by  Mr.  Brent  from  Germany,  there  are,  as 
he  informs  me,  three,  four,  or  even  five  spurs  on  each  'leg. 
Some  Dorkings  also,  have  two  spurs  on  each  leg ;  "  and  in 
birds  of  this  breed  the  spur  is  often  placed  almost  on  the 
outside  of  the  leg.  Double  spurs  are  mentioned  in  an  ancient 
Chinese  Encyclopedia.  Their  occurrence  may  be  considered 
as  a  case  of  analogous  variation,  for  some  wild  gallinaceous 
birds,  for  instance,  the  Polyplectron,  have  double  spurs. 

Judging  from  the  differences  which  generally  distinguish 
the  sexes  in  the  Gallinacese,  certain  characters  in  our  domes- 
tic fowls  appear  to  have  been  transferred  from  the  one  sex 
to  the  other.  In  all  the  species  (except  in  Turnix),  when 
there  is  any  conspicuous  difference  in  plumage  between  the 
male  and  female,  the  male  is  always  the  most  beautiful ;  but 
in  golden-spangled  Hamburghs  the  hen  is  equally  beautiful 
with  the  cock,  and  incomparably  more  beautiful  than  the  hen 
in  any  natural  species  of  Gallus;  so  that  here  a  masculine 
character  has  been  transferred  to  the  female.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Cuckoo  Dorkings  and  in  other  cuckoo  breeds  the 
pencilling,  which  in  Gallus  is  a  female  attribute,  has  been 
transferred  to  the  male :  nor,  on  the  principle  of  analogous 
variation,  is  this  transference  surprising,  as  the  males  in 
many  gallinaceous  genera  are  barred  or  pencilled.  With 
most  of  these  birds  head  ornaments  of  all  kinds  are  more  fully 
developed  in  the  male  than  in  the  female;  but  in  Polish 
fowls  the  crest  or  top  knot,  which  in  the  male  replaces  the 
comb,  is  equally  developed  in  both  sexes.  In  the  males  of 
certain  other  sub-breeds,  which  from  the  hen  having  a  small 
crest,  are  called  lark-crested,  a  single  upright  comb  sometimes 
almost  entirely  takes  the  place  of  the  crest."  "  From  this  lat- 
ter case,  and  more  especially  from  some  facts  presently  to  be 
given  with  respect  to  the  protuberance  of  the  skull  in  Polish 

"  '  Poiiltrv    Chronicle,'    vol.    i.  in    Dorkinps,    see    '  Cottapo    Gar- 

p.   595.     Mr.    Brent   has  informed  dener.'  Sept.  18th.  lS«;u.  [>.  3>i0. 
me  of   the   same   fact.      With    re-  ^*  Dixon.  '  Ornamental  and  Do- 

spect  to  the  position  of  the  spurs  mestic  Poultry,'  p.  3iiU. 


'.264: 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


fowls,  the  crest  in  this  breed  must  be  viewed  as  a  feminine 
character  which  has  been  transferred  to  the  male.  In  the 
Spanish  breed  the  male,  as  we  know,  has  an  immense  comb, 
and  this  has  been  partially  transferred  to  the  female,  for 
her  comb  is  unusually  large,  though  not  upright.  In  Game 
fowls  the  bold  and  savage  disposition  of  the  male  has  like- 
wise been  largely  transferred  to  the  female ;  *"  and  she  some- 
times even  possesses  the  eminently  masculine  character  of 
spurs.  Many  cases  are  on  record  of  fertile  hens  being  fur- 
nished with  spurs;  and  in  Germany,  according  to  Bech- 
stein,"''  the  spurs  in  the  Silk  hen  are  sometimes  very  long. 
He  mentions  also  another  breed  similarly  characterised,  in 
which  the  hens  are  excellent  layers,  but  are  apt  to  disturb  and 
break  their  eggs  owing  to  their  spurs. 

Mr.  Layard  ^'  has  given  an  account  of  a  breed  of  fowls  in 
Ceylon  with  black  skin,  bones,  and  wattle,  but  with  ordinary 
feathers,  and  which  cannot  "  be  more  aply  described  than  by 
•comparing  them  to  a  white  fowl  drawn  down  a  sooty  chimney ; 
it  is,  however,"  adds  Mr.  Layard,  "  a  remarkable  fact  that  a 
male  bird  of  the  pure  sooty  variety  is  almost  as  rare  as  a 
tortoise-shell  tom-cat."  Mr.  Blyth  found  the  same  rule  to 
liold  good  with  this  breed  near  Calcutta.  The  males  and  fe- 
males, on  the  other  hand,  of  the  black-boned  European  breed, 
with  silky  feathers,  do  not  differ  from  each  other;  so  that 
in  the  one  breed,  black  skin  and  bones  and  the  same  kind 
of  plumage  are  common  to  both  sexes,  whilst  in  the  other 
breed,  these  characters  are  confined  to  the  female  sex. 

At  the  present  day  all  the  breeds  of  Polish  fowls  have  the 
great  bony  protuberance  on  their  skulls,  which  includes  part 
of  the  brain  and  supports  the  crest,  equally  developed  in  both 
sexes.  But  formerly  in  Germany,  the  skull  of  the  hen  alone 
was  protuberant:  Blumenbach,^^  who  particularly  attended 
to  abnormal  peculiarities  in  domestic  animals,  states,  in  1805, 


"  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me 
that  Game  hens  have  been  found 
so  combative,  that  it  is  now  gen- 
erally the  practice  to  exhibit  each 
hen  in  a  separate  pen. 

5^  '  Naturgeschichte  Dentsch- 
lands.'  Band  iii.  (1793),  s.  339,  407. 

^^  On  the  Ornithology  of  Cey- 
lon. '  Annals  and  Mag.  of  Nat. 
Tlistory,'  2nd  series,  vol.  xiv. 
a854),  p.  63. 


^^  '  Handbnch  der  vergleich, 
Anatomie.'  18n.">.  p.  So,  note.  Mr. 
Tegetmeier,  who  gives  in  '  Proc. 
Zoolog.  Soc,  Nov.  2.->th,  1856.  a 
very  interesting  account  of  the 
skulls  of  Polish  fowls,  not  know- 
ing of  Bechstein's  account,  has 
disputed  the  accuracy  of  Blumen- 
bach's  statement.  For  Bechstein, 
see  '  Naturgeschichte  Deutsch- 
lands,'    Band    iii.     (1793),    s.    399, 


Chap.  VII.  EXTERNAL   DIFFERENCES.  205 

that  this  was  the  case;  and  Bechstein  had  previously,  in 
1793,  observed  the  same  fact.  This  hitter  author  has  care- 
fully described  the  effects  on  the  skull  of  a  crest  not  only  in 
the  case  of  fowls,  but  of  ducks,  geese,  and  canaries.  He  states 
that  with  fowls,  when  the  crest  is  not  much  developed,  it  is 
supported  on  a  fatty  mass;  but  when  much  developed,  it  is 
always  supported  on  a  bony  protuberance  of  variable  size. 
He  well  describe^  the  peculiarities  of  this  protuberance; 
he  attended  also  to  the  effects  of  the  modified  shape  of  tlie 
brain  on  the  intellect  of  these  birds,  and  disputes  Pallas' 
statement  that  they  are  stupid.  He  then  expressly  remarks 
that  he  never  observed  this  protuberance  in  male  fowls. 
Hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  extraordinary  character 
in  the  skulls  of  Polish  fowls  was  formerly  in  Germany  con- 
fined to  the  female  sex,  but  has  now  been  transferred  to  the 
males,  and  has  thus  become  common  to  both  sexes. 

External  Differences,  not  connected  ivith   the  Sexes,  be- 
tween the  Breeds  and  between  individual  Birds. 

The  size  of  the  body  differs  s'reatly.  IMr.  Tegetmeicr  has  known 
a  Brahma  to  weigh  17  pounds;  a  fine  ]\Ialay  coek  10  pounds; 
whilst  a  first-rate  Sebright  Bantam  weighs  hardly  more  tlian  1 
pound.  During  the  last  20  years  the  size  of  some  of  our  breeds  has 
been  lartjelv  increased  bv  methodical  selection,  whilst  that  of 
other  breeds  has  been  much  diminished.  We  have  already  seen 
how  greatly  colour  varies  even  within  the  same  breed ;  we  know- 
that  the  wild  (r.  hanlxira  varies  slightlv  in  colour;  we  know  tliat 
colour  is  variable  in  all  our  domestic  animals;  nevertheless  some 
eminent  fanciers  have  so  little  faith  in  variability,  that  they  have 
actually  argued  that  the  chief  Game  sub-breeds,  which  differ  fmm 
each  other  in  nothing  but  colovu-,  are  descended  from  distinct  wild 
species!  Crossing  often  causes  strange  modification  of  colour. 
Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me  that  when  buflf  and  while  Cochins  are 
crossed,  some  of  the  chickens  are  almost  invariably  black.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Brent,  black  and  white  Cocliins  occasionally  pro- 
duce chickens  of  a  slaty-blue  tint;  and  this  same  tint  results,  as 
M\\  Teg-etmeier  tells  me,  from  crossing  white  Cochins  with  black 
Spanish  fowls,  or  white  Dorkings  with  black  :Nrinorcas.'<»  A  good 
observer '"^  states   tliat   a  first-rate   silver-spangled   Hamburgh   hen 

note.     T  mav  add  that  at  the  first  ^•'  'Cottnce  Gardener.'  .Tan.  .^rd. 

exhibition  of  Poultrv  at  the  Zoo-  isno.  n.  21S. 

lofjical   Gardens,   in    May.    lS4r,.    I  -^'^  Mr.     WiUmnis      in     a     pMper 

saw  some  fowls,   called   Friezland  read  before  the  Dublin  >ar.  Misr. 

fowls,    of    which    111'-    hens    wen'  Soc.     nnoted     in     "  Lottage    uar- 

crested,   and   the  cocks  furnished  dener,'  18oG,  p.  101. 

with  a  conib. 


2Q6  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

gradually  lost  the  most  charaeteristic  qualities  of  the  breed,  for 
the  black  lacing  to  her  feathers  disappeared,  and  her  legs  changed 
from  leaden-blue  to  white:  but  what  makes  the  ease  remarkable 
is,  that  this  tendency  ran  in  the  blood,  for  her  sister  changed  in  a 
similar  but  less  strongly  marked  manner;  and  chickens  produced 
from  this  latter  hen  were  at  first  almost  pure  white,  "  but  on 
moulting  acquired  black  colours  and  some  spangled  feathers  with 
almost  obliterated  markings;  "'  so  that  a  new  variety  arose  in  this 
singular  manner.  The  skin  in  the  different  breeds  differs  much 
in  colour,  being  white  in  common  kinds,  yellow  in  Malays  and 
Cochins,  and  black  in  Silk  fowls:  thus  mocking,  as  M.  Godron " 
remarks  the  three  principal  types  of  skin  in  mankind.  The  same 
author  adds  that,  as  different  kinds  of  fowls  living  in  distant  and 
isolated  parts  of  the  world  have  black  skin  and  bones,  this  colour 
must  have  appeared  at  various  times  and  places. 

The  shape  and  carriage  of  the  body,  and  the  shape  of  the  head 
differ  much.  The  beak  varies  slightly  in  length  and  curvature, 
but  incomparably  less  than  with  pigeons.  In  most  crested  fowls 
the  nostrils  offer  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  being  raised  with  a 
crescentic  outline.  The  primary  wing-feathers  are  short  in  Co- 
chins; in  a  male,  which  must  have  been  more  than  twice  as  heavy 
as  G.  hankiva,  these  feathers  were  in  both  birds  of  the  same  length. 
I  have  counted,  Avith  ^Mr.  Tegetmeier's  aid,  the  primary  wing- 
feathers  in  thirteen  cocks  and  hens  of  various  breeds;  in  four  of 
them,  namely  in  two  Hamburghs,  a  Cochin,  and  Game  bantam, 
there  were  10,  instead  of  the  normal  number  9 ;  but  in  counting 
these  feathers  I  have  followed  the  practice  of  fanciers,  and  have  not 
included  the  first  minute  primary  feather,  barely  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length.  These  feathers  differ  considerably  in  relative 
length,  the  fourth,  or  the  fifth,  or  the  sixth,  being  the  longest; 
with  the  third  equal  to,  or  considerably  shorter  than  the  fifth. 
In  wild  gallinaceous  species  the  relative  length  and  number  of  the 
main  wing  and  tail-feathers  are  extremely  constant. 

The  tail  differs  much  in  erectness  and  size,  being  small  in 
Malays  and  very  small  in  Cochins.  In  thirteen  fowls  of  various 
breeds  which  I  have  examined,  five  had  the  normal  number  of  14 
feathers,  including  in  this  number  the  two  middle  sickle-feathers; 
six  others  (viz.  a  Caffre  cock.  Gold-spangled  Polish  cock.  Cochin 
hen,  Sultan  hen,  Game  hen  and  Malay  hen  had  IG;  and  two  (an 
old  Cochin  cock  and  Malay  hen)  had  17  feathers.  The  rumpless 
fowl  has  no  tail  and  in  one  which  I  possessed  there  was  no  oil- 
gland;  but  this  bird  though  the  os  coccygis  was  extremely  imperfect, 
had  a  vestige  of  a  tail  with  two  rather  long  feathers  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  outer  caudals.  This  bird  came  from  a  family  where, 
as  I  was  told,  the  breed  had  kept  true  for  twenty  years :  but  rump- 
less  fowls  often  produce  chickens  with  tails."-     An  eminent  physi- 

"  '  De   I'Esp^ce,'    1859.    p.    442.  '  Quadrupedes  rlu  Paraguay,'  torn. 

For  the  occurrence  of  black-boned  ii.  p.  324.     A  frizzled  fowl  sent  to 

fowls  in  South  America,  see  Roti-  me  from  Madras  has  black  bones, 
lin,  in  '  Mem.   de  I'Acad.  des  Sci-  •'-  Mr.   Hewitt,   in  Tegetmeier's 

ences,'  tom.  vi.  p.  351;  and  Azara,  '  Poultry  Book,'  1866,  p.  231. 


Chap.  VII.  EXTERNAL  DIFFERENCES.  207 

ologist<=^  has  recently  spoken  of  this  breed  as  a  distinct  species- 
had  he  examined  the  deformed  state  of  the  os  cocc-vv  he  would 
never  have  come  to  this  conclusion;  he  was  prolmblv  misled  by 
the  statement,  which  may  be  found  in  some  works,  tiuit  tailless 
fowls  are  wild  m  Ceylon;  but  this  statement,  as  1  have  been  as- 
sured by  Mr.  Layard  and  Dr.  Kellaert,  who  have  so  closely  studied 
the  birds  of  Ceylon,  is  utterly  false. 

The  tarsi  vary  considerably  in  leng^th,  bein;^'  relatively  to  tlie 
femur  considerably  longer  in  the  Spanish  and  Frizzled,  and  shorter 
in  the  Silk  and  Bantam  breeds,  than  in  the  wild  (J.  bdnkira;  but 
in  the  latter,  as  we  have  seen,  the  tarsi  vary  in  length.  The  tarsi 
are  often  feathered.  The  feet  in  many  breeds  are  furnished  with 
additional  toes.  Golden-spangled  Polish  fowls  are  said  '*  to  have 
the  skin  between  their  toes  much  developed:  ^Mr.  Tegetuieier 
observed  this  in  one  bird,  but  it  was  not  so  in  one  wliich  I  ex- 
amined. Professor  Hoflmann  has  sent  me  a  sketch  of  the  feet  of 
a  fowl  of  the  common  breed  at  Giessen,  with  a  web  e.xtendin"  be- 
tween the  three  toes,  for  about  a  third  of  their  length.  In  Cochin.<i 
the  middle  toe  is  said  "^  to  be  nearly  double  the  length  of  the  lateral 
toes,  and  therefore  mucli  longer  than  in  G.  baiik'na  or  in  otlu-r 
fowls;  but  this  was  not  the  case  in  two  which  I  examined.  Tlie 
nail  of  the  middle  toe  in  this  same  breed  is  surprisingly  broad  and 
flat,  but  in  a  variable  degree  in  two  birds  which  1  examined ;  of 
this  structure  in  the  nail  there  is  onlv  a  trace  in  (J.  hankini. 

The  voice  differs  slightly,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Dixon,  in 
almost  every  breed.  The  Malays  ''*'  have  a  loud,  deep,  somewhat 
prolonged  crow,  but  with  considerable  individual  difference.  Colo- 
nel Sykes  remarks  that  the  domestic  Kiilm  cock  in  India  has  not 
the  shrill  clear  pipe  of  the  English  bird,  and  "  his  scale  of  notes  ap- 
pears more  limited."  Dr.  Hooker  was  struck  with  the  '*  piolonged 
howling  screech  "  of  the  cocks  in  Sikhim."  The  crow  of  the  Cocliin 
is  notoriously  and  ludicrously  different  from  that  of  the  common 
cock.  The  disposition  of  the  different  breeds  is  widely  different, 
varying  from  the  savage  and  defiant  temper  of  the  Game-cock  to 
the  extremely  peaceable  temper  of  the  Cochins.  The  latter,  it  has 
been  asserted,  "  graze  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  any  other 
varieties."  The  Spanish  fowls  suffer  more  from  frost  than  other 
breeds. 

Before  we  pass  on  to  the  skeleton,  the  degree  of  distinct- 
ness of  the  several  breeds  from  G.  hankiva  ought  to  be  no- 
ticed. Some  writers  speak  of  the  Spanish  as  one  of  the  most 
distinct  breeds,  and  so  it  is  in  general  aspect;  but  its  charac- 

83  Dr.      Broca,      in      Brown-Se-  ISGG,  p.  41.     On  Cochins  grazing, 

quard's   '  Journal  de  Ptiys.,'   torn.  ibid.,  p.  4(5. 
ii.  p.  301.  *"^  Ferguson  on  '  rrlzc  ronltry. 

^*  Dixon's    '  Ornamental    Poul-  p.  87. 
try,'  p.  32.5  ''"  Col.   Svlces  in   '  I'loc.    Zoolog. 

'"5  '  Poultry  Chronicle,'  vol.  i.  p.  Soc.,'  18.32,   p.  1.'>1.     l»r.    H'.nk.'r's 

485.    Tegetnieier's 'Poultry  Book,'  'Himalay.  Journals,'  vol.  i.  p.  314. 


268  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

teristic  differences  are  not  important.  The  Malay  appears  to 
me  more  distinct,  from  its  tall  stature,  small  drooping  tail 
with  more  than  fourteen  tail-feathers,  and  from  its  small 
comb  and  wattles;  nevertheless,  one  Malay  sub-breed  is  col- 
oured almost  exactly  like  G.  hanhiva.  Some  authors  con- 
sider the  Polish  fowl  as  very  distinct;  but  this  a  semi-mon- 
strous breed,  as  shown  by  the  protuberant  and  irregularly 
perforated  skull.  The  Cochin,  from  its  deeply  furrowed 
frontal  bones,  peculiarly  shaped  occipital  foramen,  short 
wdng-feathers,  short  tail  containing  more  than  fourteen  feath- 
ers, broad  nail  to  the  middle  toe,  fluffy  plumage,  rough  and 
dark-coloured  eggs,  and  especially  from  its  peculiar  voice,  is 
probably  the  most  distinct  of  all  the  breeds.  If  any  one  of  our 
breeds  has  descended  from  some  unknown  species,  distinct 
from  G.  hankiva,  it  is  probably  the  Cochin ;  but  the  balance  of 
€;vidence  does  not  favour  this  view.  All  the  characteristic  dif- 
ferences of  the  Cochin  breed  are  more  or  less  variable,  and 
may  be  detected  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  in  other  breeds. 
One  sub-breed  is  coloured  closely  like  G.  hankiva.  The  feath- 
ered legs,  often  furnished  with  an  additional  toe,  the  wings 
incapable  of  flight,  the  extremely  quiet  disposition,  indicate  a 
long  course  of  domestication;  and  these  fowls  come  from 
China,  where  we  know  that  plants  and  animals  have  been 
tended  from  a  remote  period  with  extraordinary  care,  and 
where  consequently  we  might  expect  to  find  profoundly  modi- 
ffed  domestic  races. 

Osteological  Differences. — I  have  examined  twenty-seven 
skeletons  and  fifty-three  skulls  of  various  breeds,  including 
three  of  G.  hankiva:  nearly  half  of  these  skulls  I  owe  to  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  Tegetmeier,  and  three  of  the  skeletons  to 
Mr.  Eyton. 

The  Skidl  differs  greatly  in  size  in  different  breeds,  being  near- 
ly twice  as  long  in  the  largest  Cochins,  but  not  nearly  twice  as 
broad,  as  in  Bantams.  The  bones  at  the  base,  from  the  occipital 
foramen  to  the  anterior  end  (including  the  quadrates  and  ptery- 
goids), are  absolutely  identical  in  shape  in  all  the  skulls.  So  is  the 
lower  jaw.  In  the  forehead  slight  differences  are  often  perceptible 
I)etween  the  males  and  females,  evidently  caused  by  the  presence  of 
the  comb.  In  every  case  I  take  the  skull  of  G.  hanl-Ua  as  the 
standard  of  comparison.  In  four  Games,  in  one  Malay  hen,  in  an 
African  cock,  in  a  Frizzled  cock  from  Madras,  in  two  black-boned 
Silk  hens,  no   difierences  worth  notice  occur.     In  three   Spanish 


iar^r,t«Tt 


Chap.  VII.         OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES.  209 

cocks,  the  form  of  the  forehead  between  the  orbits  difrers  consider- 
ably; in  one  it  is  considerably  depressed,  wliilst  in  the  two  others 
it  is  rather  prominent,  with  a  deep  medial  furrow;  the  skull  of 
the  hen  is  smooth.  In  three  skulls  of  Hchrh/ht  linntinnH  the 
crown  is  more  globular,  and  slopes  more  abruptly  to  the  occiput, 
than  in  G.  bcoikiva.  In  a  Bantam  or  Jumper  from  iJurinah  these 
same  cliaracters  are  more  strongly  pronounced,  and  the  supra- 
occiput  is  more  pointed.  In  a  black  Bantam  the  skull  is  not  so 
globular,  and  the  occipital  foramen  is  very  large,  and  has  nearly 
the  same  sub-triangular  outline  presently  to  be  described  in 
Cochins;  and  in  this  skull  the  two  ascending  brandies  of  the  pre- 
maxillary  are  overlapped  in  a  singular  manner  by  tiie  processes  of 
the  nasal  bone,  but,  as  1  have  seen  only  one  siieciuicn,  some  of 
these  differences  may  be  individual.  Of  Cochins  and  lirahnias 
(the  latter  a  crossed  race  approaching  closely  to  Cocluns)  1  luive 
examined  seven  skulls;  at  the  point  where  the  ascending  branehes 
of  the  premaxillary  rest  on  the  frontal  bone  the  surface  is  much 
depressed,  and  from  this  depression  a  deep  medial  furrow  extends 
backwards  to  a  variable  distance;  the  edges  of  tliis  lissure  are 
rather  prominent,  as  is  the  top  of  the  skull  behind  and  over  the 
orbits.  These  characters  are  less  developed  in  the  hens.  The 
pterygoids,  and  the  processes  of  the  lower  jaw,  are  broader,  rela- 
tively to  the  size  of  the  head,  than  in  G.  baiilx'ira;  and  tliis  is 
likewise  the  case  with  Dorkings  when  of  large  size.  The  fork  of 
the  hyoid  bone  in  Cochins  is  twice  as  wide  as  in  G.  banklva,  where- 
as the  length  of  the  other  hyoid  bones  is  only  as  three  to  two. 
But  the  most  remarkable  character  is  the  shape  of  the  occipital 


Fig.  33.— Occipital  Foramen,   of  A.  Wild   Gallufi^  hnid-iva.     B.  Cochin 

natural  size.  Cock. 

foramen:  in  G.  hanlhn  (A)  the  breadth  in  a  horizontal  line  ex- 
ceeds the  height  in  a  vertical  line,  and  the  outline  is  nearly  cir- 
cular; whereas  in  Cochins  (B)  the  outline  is  sub-triangular,  and 
the  vertical  line  exceeds  the  horizontal  line  in  length.  This  same 
form  likewise  occurs  in  the  black  Bantam  above  referred  to.  and 
an  approach  to  it  may  be  seen  in  some  Dorkings,  ami  in  a  slight 
degree  in  certain  other  breeds.  . 

Of  Dorkings  I  have  examined  three  skulls,  one  belon-ing  to  the 
white  sub-breed;  the  one  character  deserving  notice  is  the  breadtli 


270 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


of  the  frontal  bones,  which  are  moderately  furrowed  in  the  middle; 
thus  in  a  skull  which  was  less  than  once  and  a  half  the  length  of 
that  of  G.  hankiva,  the  breadth  between  the  orbits  was  exactly 
double.  Of  Hambiirghs  I  have  examined  four  skulls  (male  and 
female)  of  the  pencilled  sub-breed,  and  one  (male)  of  the  spangled 
sub-breed;  the  nasal  bones  stand  remarkably  wide  apart,  but  in  a 
variable  degree;  consequently  narrow  membrane-covered  spaces 
are  left  between  the  tips  of  the  two  ascending  branches  of  the  pre- 
niaxillary  bones,  which  are  rather  short,  and  between  these 
branches  and  the  nasal  bones.  The  surface  of  the  frontal  bone, 
on  which  tiie  branches  of  the  premaxillary  rest,  is  very  little  de- 
pressed. These  peculiarities  no  doubt  stand  in  close  relation  with 
the  broad,  flattened  rose-comb  characteristic  of  the  Hamburgh 
breed. 

I  have  examined  fourteen  skulls  of  Polish  and  other  crested 


B 


Fig.  34. — Skulls  of  natural  size,  viewed  from  above,  a  little  obliquely. 
A.  Wild  Gallns  banl'iva.     B.  White-crested  Polish  Cock. 

hrecds.     Their  differences  are  extraordinary.     First  for  nine  skulls 
of  different  sub-breeds  of  English  Polish  fowls.     The  hemispherical 


®S/SfeeMr.  Tegetmeier's  account, 
with  woodcuts,  of  the  sl<ull  of 
Polish  fowls,  in  '  Proc.  Zooln^. 
Soc'  Nov.  25th,  18.56.  For  other 
references,  see  Isid.  Geoffrey 
Saint-Hilaire,  '  Hist.  Gen.  des 
Anomalies,'  torn.  1.  p.  287.     M.  C. 


Dareste  suspects  ('  Recherches 
sur  les  Conditions  de  la  Vie.'  <S:c., 
Lille.  1863.  p.  36)  that  the  pro- 
tuhernnce  is  not  formed  hy  the 
frontal  bones,  but  by  the  ossifica- 
tion of  the  dura  mater. 


Chap.  YII.         OSTEOLOGICAL   DIFFEREXCES.  07X 

protuberance  of  the  frontal  bones  "^*  may  be  seen  in  the  accompany- 
ing drawings,  in  which  (B)  the  skull  of  a  white-crested  Polish  fowl 
is  shown  obliquely  from  above,  with  the  skull   (A)  of  r;.  haiikira 
in  the  same  position.     In  Fig.  35  longitudinal   sections  are  given 
of  the  skull  of  a  Polish  fowl,  and,  for  comparison,  of  a  Cochin  of 
tlie  same  size.     The  protuberance  in  all  Polish  fowls  occupies  the 
same  position  but  difi'ers  nmch  in  size.     In  one  of  my  nine  speci- 
mens it  was  extremely  slight.     The  degree  to  wiiich  the  protuber- 
ance is  ossified  varies  greatly,  larger  or  smaller  porlioir»  of  bone 
being  replaced  by  membrane.     In  one  specimen  there  was  only  a 
single  open  pore;  generally,  there  are  many  variously  shaped  open 
spaces,    the    bone    forming    an    irregular    reticulation.     A    medial, 
longitudinal,  arched  ribbon  of  bone  is  generally  retained,  but   in 
one  specimen  there  was  no  bone  whatever  over  the  whole  protuber- 
ance, and  the  skull,   when   cleaned   and   viewed   from   aijove,   pre- 
sented the  appearance  of  an  open  basin.     The  change  in  the  whole 
internal    form   of   the   skull   is   surprisingly   great.     Tiie   brain    is 
modified  in  a  corresponding  manner,  as  is  shown  in  the  two  longi- 
tudinal sections,  which  deserves  attentive  consideration.     The  up- 
per and  anterior  cavity  of  the  three  into  whicli  the  skull  may  be 
divided,  is  the  one  which  is  so  greatly  modified;   it  is  evidently 
much  larger  than  in  the  Cochin  skull  of  the  same  size,  and  ex- 
tends much  further  beyond  the  interorbital  septum,  but  laterally 
is  less  deep.     This  cavity,  as  I  hear  from  jNIr.  Tegetmeier.  is  en- 
tirely filled   W'ith  brain.     In  the  skull  of  the  Cochin  and  of  all 
ordinary  fowls  a  strong  internal  ridge  of  bone  sej>arates  the  an- 
terior from  the  central  cavity;  but  this  ridge  is  quite  absent  in  the 
Polish  skull  here  figured.     The  shape  of  the  central  cavity  is  circu- 
lar in  the  Polish,  and  lengthened  in  the  Cochin  skull.     The  shape 
of  the  posterior  cavity,  together  with  the  position,  size,  and  num- 
ber of  the  pores  for  the  nerves,  diff"er  much  in  these  two  skulls. 
A  pit  deeply  penetrating  the  occipital  bone  of  the  Cochin  is  en- 
tirely absent  in  this  Polish  skull,  whilst  in  another  specimen  it 
was\vell  developed.     In  this  second   specimen  the  whole  internal 
surface  of  the  posterior  cavity  likewise  differs  to  a  certain  extent 
in   shape.     I    made    sections    of    two   other    skulls.— namely,    of   a 
Polish  fowl  with  the  protuberance  singularly  little  developed,  and 
of  a  Sultan  in  which  it  was  a  little  more  developed:   and   when 
these  two  skulls  were  placed  between  the  two  above  figured   (Fig. 
35),  a  perfect  gradation  in  the  configuration  of  each  part  of  the 
internal    surface    could    be    traced.     In    the    Polish    skull,    with    a 
small   protuberance,    the   ridge   between   the   anterior   and    nuildle 
cavities  was  present,  but  low:   and  in  the  Sultan   this  iidge   was 
replaced  bv  a  narrow  furrow  standing  on  a  broad  raised  ennnence. 
It  mav*^  naturally  be  asked  whether  these  remarkable  modifica- 
tions in  the  form  of  the  brain  affect  the  intellect  of  Polish  jowls; 
some   writers   have    stated    that    they    are    extremely    stupid,    but 
Bechstein  and  Mr.  Tegetmeier  have  shown  that  this  is  by  no  means 
generally  the  case.     Nevertheless  Bechstein  ^'^  states  that  he  had  a 
69  '  Naturgeschichte  Deutschlands,'  Band  iii.  (1793),  s.  400. 


272 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


Polish  lien  which  "  was  crazy,  and  anxiously  wandered  about  all 
day  long."  A  hen  in  my  possession  was  solitary  in  her  habits, 
and  was  often  so  absorbed  in  reverie  that  she  could  be  touched; 
she  was  also  deficient  in  the  most  singular  manner  in  the  faculty 
of  finding  her  way,  so  that,  if  she  strayed  a  hundred  yards  from 
her  feeding-place,  she  was  completely  lost,  and  would  then  ob- 
stinately try  to  proceed  in  a  wrong  direction.  I  have  received 
other  and  similar  accounts  of  Polish  fowls  appearing  stupid  or 
half-idiotic.'" 

To  return  to  the  skull  of  Polish  fowls.  The  posterior  part, 
viewed  externallv,  differs  little  from  that  of  G.  hankica.  In  most 
fowls  the  posterior-lateral  process  of  the  frontal  bone  and  the 
process  of  the  squamosal  bone  run  together  and  are  ossified  near 


Fig.  35.— Longitudinal  sections  of  Skull,  of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally. 
A.  Polish  Cock.  B.  Cochin  Cock,  selected  for  comparison  with  the 
above  from  being  of  nearly  the  same  size. 

their  extremities:  this  union  of  the  two  bones,  hovrever,  is  not 
constant  in  any  breed;  and  in  eleven  out  of  fourteen  skulls  of 
crested  breeds,  these  processes  were  quite  distinct.  These  pro- 
cesses, when  not  united,  instead  of  being  inclined  anteriorly,  as  in 


70  .  Tj^p  Field.' 
have   received 


May  11th.  1861. 
communications 


to   a   similar  effect   from  Messrs. 
Brent  and  Tegetmeier. 


Chap.  YII.         OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENX'ES.  273 

all  common  breeds,  descend  at  right  angles  to  the  lower  jaw;  ami  in 
more  perpendicular,  than  in  other  breeds.  When  the  srp'iaiiiosal 
this  case  the  longer  axis  of  the  bony  cavity  of  the  ear  is  likewise 
process  is  Iree  instead  of  expanding  at  the  tip,  it  is  rcduci'd  to 
an  extremely  fine  and  pointed  style,  of  varial)le  Icngtli.  The  jtlcry- 
goid  and  quadrate  bones  present  no  dillerenccs.  The  palatine 
bones  are  a  little  more  curved  upwards  at  their  posterior  ends. 
The  frontal  bones,  anteriorly  to  the  protuberance,  are,  as  in  Ihtrk- 
ings,  very  broad,  but  in  a  variable  degree.  The  nasal  bones  either 
stand  far  apart,  as  in  Hamburghs,  or  almost  touch  each  other,  and 
in  one  instance  were  ossilied  together.  Each  nasal  bone  properly 
sends  out  in  front  two  long  processes  of  equal  length,  forming  a. 
fork;  but  in  all  the  Polish  skulls,  except  one,  the  inner  j)rocess 
was  considerably,  but  in  a  variable  degree,  shortened  and  some- 
what upturned.  In  all  the  skulls,  except  one,  the  two  ascending 
branches  of  the  premaxillary,  instead  of  running  up  between  the 
processes  of  the  nasal  bones  and  resting  on  the  ethmoid  bone,  are 
much  shortened  and  terminate  in  a  blunt,  somewhat  upturned 
point.  In  those  skulls  in  which  the  nasal  bones  approach  quite 
close  to  each  other  or  are  ossified  together,  it  would  be  impossible 
for  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  to  reach  the  eth- 
moid and  frontal  bones;  hence  we  see  that  even  the  relative  con- 
nection of  the  bones  has  been  changed.  Apparently  in  consequence 
of  the  branches  of  the  premaxillary  and  of  the  inner  processes  of 
the  nasal  bones  being  somewhat  upturned,  the  external  orifices  of 
the  nostrils  are  upraised  and  assume  a  crescentic  outline. 

I  must  still  say  a  few  words  on  some  of  the  foreign  Crested 
breeds.  The  skull  of  a  crested,  rumpless,  white  Turkish  fowl  was 
very  slightly  protuberant,  and  but  little  perforated ;  the  ascending 
branches  of  the  premaxillary  was  well  developed.  In  another 
Turkish  breed,  called  Ghoondooks,  the  skull  was  considerably 
protuberant  and  perforated;  the  ascending  branches  of  the  pre- 
maxillary were  so  much  aborted  that  they  projected  only-j^^th  of 
an  inch;  and  the  inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bone  were  so  com- 
pletely aborted,  that  the  surface  where  they  should  have  pro- 
jected was  quite  smooth.  Here  then  we  see  these  two  bones 
modified  to  an  extreme  degree.  Of  Sultans  (another  Turkish 
breed)  I  have  examined  two  skulls;  in  that  of  the  female  the  pro- 
tuberance was  much  larger  than  in  the  male.  In  both  skulls  th& 
ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  were  very  short,  and  in 
both  the  nasal  portion  of  the  inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bones 
were  ossified  together.  These  Sultan  skulls  diflered  from  those  of 
English  Polish  fowls  in  the  frontal  bones,  anteriorly  to  the  pro- 
tuberance, not  being  broad. 

The  last  skull  which  I  need  describe  is  a  unique  one,  lent  to  me 
by  Mr.  Teffetmeier:  it  resembles  a  Polish  skull  in  most  of  its 
characters,  "but  has  not  the  great  frontal  protuberance:  it  has 
however,  two  rounded  knobs  of  a  different  nature,  which  stand 
more  in  front,  above  the  lachrymal  bones.  These  curious  knobs, 
into  which  the  brain  does  not  enter,  are  separated  from  each  other 


ST4: 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VIL 


by  a  deep  medial  furrow;  and  this  is  perforated  by  a  few  minute 
pores.  The  nasal  bones  stand  rather  wide  apart,  with  their  inner 
processes,  and  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary,  up- 
turned and  shortened.  The  two  knobs  no  doubt  supported  the  two 
great  horn-like  projections  of  the  comb. 

From  the  foregoing  facts  we  see  in  how  astonishing  a  manner 
some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  vary  in  Crested  fowls.  The  pro- 
tuberance may  certainly  be  called  in  one  sense  a  monstrosity,  as 
being  wholly  unlike  anything  observed  in  nature:  but  as  in  or- 
dinary cases  it  is  not  injurious  to  the  bird,  and  as  it  is  strictly 
inherited,  it  can  hardly  in  another  sense  be  called  a  monstrosity. 
A  series  may  be  formed  commencing  with  the  black-boned  Silk 
fowl,  which  has  a  very  small  crest  with  the  skull  beneath  pene- 
trated only  by  a  few  minute  orifices,  but  with  no  other  change  in 
its  structure;  and  from  this  first  stage  we  may  proceed  to  fowls 
with  a  moderately  large  crest,  which  rests,  according  to  Bechstein, 
on  a  fleshy  mass,  but  without  any  protuberance  in  the  skull.  I 
may  add  that  I  have  seen  a  similar  fleshy  or  fibrous  mass  beneath 
the  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  head  of  the  Tufted  duck;  and  in  this 
case  tliere  was  no  actual  protuberance  in  the  skull,  but  it  had  be- 
come a  little  more  globular.  Lastly,  when  we  come  to  fowls  with 
a  largely  developed  crest,  the  skull  becomes  largely  protuberant 


Fig.  36. — Skull  of  Horned  Fowl,  of  natural  size,  viewed  from  above,  a 
little  obliquely.     (In  the  possession  of  Tegetmeier.) 

and  is  perforated  by  a  multitude  of  irregular  open  spaces.  The 
close  relation  between  the  crest  and  the  size  of  the  bony  pro- 
tuberance is  shown  in  another  way;  for  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs 
me  that  if  chickens  lately  hatched  be  selected  with  a  large  bony 
protuberance,  when  adult  they  will  have  a  large  crest.  There  can 
he  no  doubt  that  in  former  times  the  breeder  of  Polish  fo^Ais  at- 
tended solely  to  the  crest,  and  not  to  the  skull;  nevertheless,  by 
increasing  the  crest,  in  which  he  has  been  wonderfully  successful, 


Chap.  VII.         OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES.  275 

he  has  unintentionally  made  the  skull  protuberant  to  an  aston- 
ishing degree;  and  through  correlation  of  growth,  he  lias  at  the 
same  time  affected  the  form  and  relative  connection  of  the  i>r('niax- 
illary  and  nasal  bones,  the  shape  of  the  orilice  of  tlie  nose,  the 
breadth  of  the  frontal  bones,  the  shape  of  the  post-lateral  processes 
of  the  frontal  and  squamosal  bones,  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the 
bony  cavity  of  the  ear,  and  lastly  the  internal  configuration  of  the 
whole  skull  together  with  the  shape  of  the  brain. 

Vertebrw. — In  G.  hankiva  there  are  fourteen  cervical,  seven 
dorsal  with  ribs,  apparentl}^  fifteen  lumbar  and  sacral,  and  six 
caudal  vertebrae;  ^^  but  the  lumbar  and  sacral  are  so  much  andiv- 
losed  that  I  am  not  sure  of  their  number,  and  this  mak»'s  the 
comparison  of  the  total  number  of  vertebra?,  in  the  several  breeds 
dithcult.  I  have  spoken  of  six  caudal  vertebrae,  because  the  basal 
one  is  almost  completely  anchylosed  with  the  pelvis;  but  if  we 
consider  the  number  as  seven,  the  caudal  vertebrae  agree  in  all  tlie 
skeletons.  The  cervical  vertebrae  are,,  as  just  stated,  in  appear- 
ance fourteen;  but  out  of  twenty-three  skeletons  in  a  fit  state  for 
examination,  in  five  of  them,  namely,  in  two  Games,  in  two  pen- 
cilled Hamburghs,  and  in  a  Polish,  the  fourteenth  vertebra  bore 
ribs,  which,  though  small,  were  perfectly  developed  with  a  double 
articulation.  The  presence  of  these  little  ribs  cannot  be  considered 
as  a  fact  of  much  importance,  for  all  the  cervical  vertebrae  bear 
representatives  of  ribs;  but  their  development  in  the  fourteenth 
vertebra  reduces  the  size  of  the  passages  in  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses, and  makes  this  vertebra  exactly  like  the  first  dorsal  ver- 
tebra. The  addition  of  these  little  ribs  does  not  affect  the  four- 
teenth cervical  alone,  for  properly  the  ribs  of  the  first  true  dorsal 
vertebra  are  destitute  of  processes;  but  in  some  of  the  skeletons 
in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  bore  little  ribs  the  first  pair  of 
true  ribs  had  well-developed  processes.  When  we  know  that  the 
sparrow  has  only  nine,  and  the  swan  twenty-three  cervical  verte- 
brae,'- we  need  feel  no  surprise  at  the  number  of  the  cervical  ver- 
tebrae in  the  fowl  being,  as  it  appears,  variable. 

There  are  seven  dorsal  vertebrae  bearing  ribs;  the  first  dorsal  is 
never  anchvlosed  with  the  succeeding  four,  which  are  generally 
anchvlosed  together.  In  one  Sultan  foAvl,  however,  the  two  first 
dorsal  vertebra  were  free.  In  two  skeletons,  the  fifth  dorsal  was 
free;  generallv  the  sixth  is  free  (as  in  G.  hankiva),  but  sometimes 
only  at  its  posterior  end,  where  in  contact  with  the  seventh.  The 
seventh  dorsal  vertebra,  in  every  case  excepting  in  one  Spanish 
cock,  was  anchvlosed  with  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  So  that  the  de- 
gree  to   which  ^  these   middle    dorsal   A^ertebrae   are   anchylosed    is 

variable. 

Seven  is  the  normal  number  of  true  ribs,  but  in  two  skeletons 


"It  appears  that  I  have  not  dorsa  ,  15.  l^^l^Vi^- J"'J,  ^  V?n  ^^^ 
^■urrectlv  designated  the  several  vertebrae  in  this  f^^""^;,^ J,\f  ^ 
gronps   of   vertebra?,    for   a   jrreat        ^^^^e  used  the  sane  lei  ns  In 


aunioritv,     Mr.     W.     K.     Parker  the  following  ^^^'«<^'.y  .     'h  Rlrds  • 
('Transact.   Zoolog.   Soc..'  vol.  v.  "  Macgiljivray,    Bilti^U  Birds, 

p.    19S),    specifies    16    cervical,    4  vol.  i.  p.  ^j. 
19 


276 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


of  the  Sultan  fowl  (in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  vertebra  was 
not  furnished  with  little  ribs)  there  were  eight  pairs;  the  eighth 
pair  seemed  to  be  developed  on  a  vertebra  corresponding  with  the 
first  lumbar  in  G.  hankiva;  the  sternal  portion  of  both  the  seventh 
and  eight  ribs  did  not  reach  the  sternum.  In  four  skeletons  in 
which  ribs  were  developed  on  the  fouiteenth  cervical  vertebra, 
there  were,  when  these  cervical  ribs  are  included,  eight  pairs;  but 
in  one  Game  cock,  in  which  the  fourteenth  cervical  was  furnished 
with  ribs,  there  were  only  six  pairs  of  true  dorsal  ribs;  the  sixth 
pair  in  this  case  did  not  have  processes,  and  thus  resembled  the 
seventh  pair  in  other  skeletons;  in  this  Game  cock,  as  far  as  could 
be  judged  from  the  appearance  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  a  whole 
dorsal  vertebra  with  its  ribs  was  missing.  We  thus  see  that  the 
ribs  (whether  or  not  the  little  pair  attached  to  the  fourteenth 
cervical  vertebra  be  counted)  vary  from  six  to  eight  pair.  The 
sixth  pair  is  frequently  not  furnished  with  processes.  The  sternal 
portion  of  the  seventh  pair  is  extremely  broad  in  Cochins,  and  is 
completely  ossified.  As  previously  stated,  it  is  scaicely  possible  to 
count  the  lumbo-sacral  vertebrae;  but  they  certainly  do  not  corre- 
spond in  shape  or  number  in  the  several  skeletons.  The  caudal 
vertebrae  are  closely  similar  in  all  the  skeletons,  the  only  diff'erence 
being  whether  or  not  the  basal  one  is  anchylosed  to  the  pelvis; 
they  hardly  vary  even  in  length,  not  being  shorter  in  Cochins,  with 
their  short  tail-feathers,  than  in  other  breeds;  in  a  Spanish  cock, 
however,  the  caudal  vertebrae  weie  a  little  elongated.  In  three 
rumpless  fowls  the  caudal  vertebrae  were  few  in  number,  and 
anchvlosed  together  into  a  misformed  mass. 

In  the  individual  vertebrae  the  difi'erences  in  structure  are  very 
slight.  In  the  atlas  the  cavity  for  the  occipital  condyle  is  either 
ossified  into  a  ring,  or  is,  as  in  Bankiva,  open  on  its  upper  margin. 

The  upper  arc  of  the  spinal  canal  is  a 
little  more  arched  in  Cochins,  in  conform- 
ity with  the  shape  of  the  occipital  fora- 
men, than  in  G.  hankiva.  In  several  skele- 
tons a  difference,  but  not  of  much  im- 
portance, may  be  observed,  which  com- 
mences at  the  fourth  cervical  vertebra, 
and  is  greatest  at  about  the  sixth, 
seventh,  or  eighth  vertebra;  this  consists 
in  the  haemal  descending  processes  being 
united  to  the  body  of  the  vertebra  by  a 
sort  of  buttress.  This  structure  may  be 
observed  in  Cochins,  Polish,  some  Ham- 
burghs,  and  isrobably  other  breeds:  but 
is  absent,  or  barely  developed  in  Game, 
Dorking.  Spanish.  Bantam,  and  several 
other  breeds  examined  by  me.  On  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  sixth 
cervical  vertebra  in  Cochins  three  prominent  points  are  more 
strongly  developed  than  in  the  corresponding  vertebra  of  the  Game 
fowl  or  G.  hankiva. 


B 


Fig.  37.— Sixth  Cervical 
Vertebra,  of  natural  size, 
viewed  laterally.  A. 
Wild  Gnllus  bankiva.  B. 
Cochin  Cock. 


Chap.  VII. 


OSTEOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES. 


277 


\ 


/"^'^ty^ 


B 


V 


Pelvis.^— This  differs  in  some  few  points  in  the  several  skeletons. 
The  anterior  margin  of  the  ilium  seems  at  first  to  vary  much  in 
outline,  but  this  is  chiefly  due  to  the  degree  to  which  the  margin 
in  the  middle  part  is  ossified  to  the  crest  of  the  vertebra-;  tlie  out- 
line, however,  does  differ  in  being  more  truncated  in  liantams, 
and  more  rounded  in  certain  breeds,  as  in  Cochins.  The  outline 
of  the  ischiadic  foramen  differs  considerably,  being  nearly  circuhir 
in  Bantams,  instead  of  egg-shaped  as  in  the  IJankiva,  and  mure 
regularly  oval  in  some  skeletons,  as  in  the  Spanish.  Tlu*  obtu- 
rator notch  is  also  much  less  elongated  in  some  skeletons  than  in 
others.  The  end  of  the  pubic 
bone  presents  the  greatest  differ- 
ence; being  hardly  enlarged  in 
the  Bankiva ;  considerably  and 
and  gradually  enlarged  in  Co- 
chins, and  in  a  lesser  degree  in 
some  other  breeds;  and  abruptly 
enlarged  in  Bantams.  In  one 
Bantam  this  bone  extended  very 
little  beyond  the  extremity  of 
the  ischium.  The  whole  pelvis  in 
this  latter  bird  differed  widely 
in  its  proportions,  being  far 
broader  proportionally  to  its 
length  than  in  Bankiva. 

"sternum. — This    bone    is    gen- 
erally so  much  deformed  that  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  compare  its 
shape     strictly     in     the     several 
breeds.     The   forms   of  the   trian- 
gular   extremity    of    the    lateral 
processes  differs  considerably,  be- 
ing  either    almost    equilateral    or 
much  elongated.     The  front  mar- 
gin of  the  crest  is  more  or  less  per- 
pendicular and  varies  greatly,  as  Fig.  38.— Extremity  of  the  Furcula, 
does    the    curvature    of    the    pos-      of  natural  size,  viewed  laterally, 
terior    end,    and    the    flatness    of      A.  Wild  Goniis  bankiva.  B.  Span 
the   lower    surface.      The   outline      ^^'^^^ 
of    the     manubrial     process     also 
varies,    being    wedge-shaped    in    the    Bankiva 
the   Spanish  breed 


/ 


B. 

Polish    Fowl.     C.  Spanish 
Fowl.     D.   Dorking  Fowl. 

and    rounded    in 
The'  furculiim   differs  in   being  more   or   less 


arched,  and  greatly,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanymg  out- 
lines, in  the  shape  of  the  terminal  plate;  but  the  shape  of  this 
part  dift'ered  a  little  in  two  skeletons  of  the  wild  B:inkiva.  The 
coracokl  presents  no  difference  worth  notice.  The  snipiihi  varies 
in  shape,  being  of  nearly  uniform  breadth  in  liankiva,  much 
broader  in  the 'middle  in  the  Polish  fowl,  and  abruptly  narrowed 
toAvards  the  apex  in  the  two  Sultan  fowls. 

I  carefully  compared  each  separate  bone  of  the  leg  and  wing, 


278  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

relatively  to  the  same  bones  in  the  wild  Bankiva,  in  the  following 
breeds,  which  I  thought  were  the  most  likely  to  differ;  namely, 
in  Cochin,  Dorking,  Spanish,  Polish,  Burmese  Bantam,  Frizzled 
Indian,  and  black-boned  Silk  fowls;  and  it  was  truly  surprising 
to  see  how  absolutely  every  process,  articulation,  and  pore  agreed, 
though  the  bones  differed  greatly  in  size.  The  agreement  is  far 
more  absolute  than  in  other  parts  of  the  skeleton.  In  stating  this, 
I  do  not  refer  to  the  relative  thickness  and  length  of  the  several 
bones;  for  the  tarsi  varied  considerably  in  both  these  respects. 
But  the  other  limb-bones  varied  little  even  in  relative  length. 

Finally,  I  have  not  examined  a  sufficient  number  of  skele- 
tons to  say  whether  any  of  the  foregoing  differences,  except 
in  the  skull,  are  characteristic  of  the  several  breeds.  Appar- 
ently some  differences  are  more  common  in  certain  breeds 
than  in  others, — as  an  additional  rib  to  the  fourteenth  cer- 
vical vertebra  in  Hamburghs  and  Games,  and  the  breadth 
of  the  end  of  the  pubic  bone  in  Cochins.  Both  skeletons  of 
the  Sultan  fowl  had  eight  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  the  end  of  the 
scapula  in  both  was  somewhat  attenuated.  In  the  skull,  the 
deep  medial  furrow  in  the  frontal  bones  and  the  vertically 
elongated  occipital  foramen  seem  to  be  characteristic  of 
Cochins ;  as  is  the  great  breadth  of  the  frontal  bones  in 
Dorkings;  the  separation  and  open  spaces  between  the  tips 
of  the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillaries  and  nasal 
bones,  as  well  as  the  front  part  of  the  skull  being  but  little 
depressed,  characterize  Hamburghs;  the  globular  shape  of 
the  posterior  part  of  the  skull  seems  to  be  characteristic  of 
laced  Bantams ;  and  lastly,  the  protuberance  of  the  skull  with 
the  ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillaries  partially 
aborted,  together  with  the  other  differences  before  specified, 
are  eminently  characteristic  of  Polish  and  other  Crested 
fowls. 

But  the  most  striking  result  of  my  examination  of  the 
skeleton  is  the  great  variability  of  all  the  bones  except  those 
of  the  extremities.  To  a  certain  extent  we  can  understand 
"why  the  skeleton  fluctuates  so  much  in  structure;  fowls  have 
heen  exposed  to  unnatural  conditions  of  life,  and  their  whole 
organization  has  thus  been  rendered  variable ;  but  the  breeder 
is  quite  indifferent  to,  and  never  intentionally  selects,  any 
modification  in  the  skeleton.  External  characters,  if  not 
attended  to  by  man, — such  as  the  number  of  the  tail  and 


Chap.  VII.  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DISUSE.  279 

wing  feathers  and  their  relative  lengths,  which  in  wild  birds 
are  generally  constant — fluctuate  in  our  domestic  fowls  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  several  parts  of  the  skeleton.  An 
additional  toe  is  a  "  point "  in  Dorkings,  and  has  become  a 
fixed  character,  but  is  variable  in  Cochins  and  Silk  fowls. 
The  colour  of  the  plumage  and  the  form  of  the  comb  are  in 
most  breeds,  or  even  sub-breeds;  eminently  fixed  characters; 
but  in  Dorkings  these  points  have  not  been  attended  to,  and 
are  variable.  When  any  modification  in  the  skeleton  is 
related  to  some  external  character  which  man  values,  it  has 
been,  unintentionally  on  his  part,  acted  on  by  selection,  and 
has  become  more  or  less  fixed.  We  see  this  in  the  wonderful 
protuberance  of  the  skull,  which  supports  the  crest  of  feathers 
in  Polish  fowls,  and  which  by  correlation  has  affected  other 
parts  of  the  skull.  We  see  the  same  result  in  the  two  pro- 
tuberances which  support  the  horns  in  the  horned  fowl,  and 
in  the  flattened  shape  of  the  front  of  the  skull  in  Ilamburghs 
consequent  on  their  flattened  and  broad  "  rose-combs.''  We 
know  not  in  the  least  whether  additional  ribs,  or  the  changed 
outline  of  the  occipital  foramen,  or  the  changed  form  of  the 
scapula,  or  of  the  extremity  of  the  furculum,  are  in  any 
way  correlated  with  other  structures,  or  have  arisen  from  the 
changed  conditions  and  habits  of  life  to  which  our  fowls  have 
been  subjected;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  these 
various  modifications  in  the  skeleton  could  be  rendered,  either 
by  direct  selection,  or  by  the  selection  of  correlated  structures, 
as  constant  and  as  characteristic  of  each  breed,  as  are  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  body,  the  colour  of  the  plumage,  and 
the  form  of  the  comb. 

Effects  of  the  Disuse  of  Parts. 

Judging  from  the  habits  of  our  European  gallinaceous  binls, 
Galliis  banklva  in  its  native  haunts  would  use  its  legs  and  wings 
more  than  do  our  domestic  fowls,  which  rarely  fly  except  to  their 
roosts.  The  Silk  and  the  Frizzled  fowls,  from  having  imperfect 
wdng-feathers,  cannot  fly  at  all;  and  there  is  reason  to  heliovc  that 
both  these  breeds  are  ancient,  so  that  their  progenitois  during 
many  generations  cannot  have  flown.  The  Cocliins,  also,  from 
their  short  wings  and  heavy  bodies,  can  hardly  lly  up  t<i  a  low 
perch.  Therefore  in  these  breeds,  especially  in  the  two  tirst.  a  con- 
siderable diminution  in  the  wing-bones  miglit  have  been  oxnoetod, 
but  this  is  not  the  case.     In  every  specimen,  after  disarticulating 


280 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


and  cleaning  the  bones,  I  carefully  compared  the  relative  length 
of  the  two  main  bones  of  the  wing  to  each  other,  and  of  the  two 
main  bodies  of  the  leg  to  each  other,  with  those  of  G.  bnnkiva; 
and  it  was  surprising  to  see  (except  in  the  case  of  the  tarsi)  how 
exactly  the  same  relative  length  had  been  retained.  This  fact  is 
curious,  from  showing  how  truly  the  proportions  of  an  organ  may 
be  inherited,  although  not  fully  exercised  during  many  genera- 
tions. I  then  compared  in  several  breeds  the  length  of  the  femur 
and  tibia  with  the  humerus  and  ulna,  and  likewise  these  same 
bones  with  those  of  G.  hunkiva ;  the  result  was  that  the  winor- 
bones  in  all  the  breeds  (except  the  Burmese  Jumper,  which  has  un- 
naturally short  legs,  are  slightly  shortened  relatively  to  the  leg- 
bones;  but  the  decrease  is  so  slight  that  it  may  be  due  to  the 
standard  specimen  of  G.  hunkiva  having  accidentally  had  wings  of 
slightly  greater  length  than  usual;  so  that  the  measurements  are 
not  worth  giving.  But  it  deserves  notice  that  the  Silk  and  Friz- 
zled fowls,  which  are  quite  incapable  of  flight,  had  their  wings  less 
reduced  relatively  to  their  legs  than  in  almost  any  other  breed! 
We  have  seen  with  domesticated  pigeons  that  tlie  bones  of  tJie 
wings  are  somewhat  reduced  in  length,  whilst  the  primary  feathers 
are  rather  increased  in  length,  and  it  is  just  possible,  though  not 
probable,  that  in  the  Silk  and  Frizzled  fowls  any  tendency  to  de- 
crease in  the  length  of  the  wing-bones  from  disuse  may  have  been 
checked  through  the  law  of  compensation,  by  the  decreased  growth 
of  the  ^^■ing-feathers,  and  consequent  increased  supply  of  nutri- 
ment. The  wing-bones,  however,  in  both  these  breeds,  are  found 
to  be  slightly  reduced  in  length  when  judged  by  the  standard  of 
the  length  of  the  sternum  or  head,  relatively  to  these  same  parts  in 
G.  ba)ikiva. 

The  actual  weight  of  the  main  bones  of  the  leg  and  wine:  in 
twelve  breeds  is  given  in  the  two  first  columns  in  the  following 
table.  The  calculated  weight  of  the  wing-bones  relatively  to  the 
leg-bones,  in  comparison  with  the  leg  and  wing-bones  of  G.  hankira, 
are  given  in  the  third  column, — the  weight  of  the  wing-bones  in 
G.  hankiva,  being  called  a  hundred.'^ 

In  the  eight  first  birds,  belonging  to  distinct  breeds,  in  this 
table,  we  see  a  decided  reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  bones  of 
the  wing. 

In  the  Indian  Frizzled  fowl,  which  cannot  flv,  the  reduction 
carried  to  the  greatest  extent,  namely,  to  thirty-three  per  cent, 
their  proper  proportional  weight.     In  the  next  four  birds,  includ- 


is 
of 


^3  It  may  be  well  to  explain 
how  the  onlcnlntinn  has  been 
made  for  the  third  column.  In 
G.  hankiva  the  leg-bones  are  to 
the  winir-bones  as  80  :  o4,  or  as 
(negrleetine:  decimals)  100  :  62:— in 
Cochins  as  331  :  162,  or  as  100  : 
52; — in  Dorkings  as  5^7  :  24S,  or 
as  100  :  44.  and  so  on  for  the 
other  breeds.  We  thus  get  the 
series  of  62,  52,  44  for  the  relative 


weights  of  the  winir-bonos  in  G. 
hankiva.  Cochins.  Dorkings,  <Src. 
And  now  taking  100,  instead  of 
62,  for  the  weight  of  the  wing- 
bones  in  G.  baukii'a,  we  get,  by 
another  riile  of  three,  88  as  the 
weight  of  the  wing  bones  in  Coch- 
ins; 70  in  the  Dorkings;  and  so 
on  for  the  remainder  of  the  third 
column  in  the  table. 


Chap.  VII. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  D13USE. 


281 


ing  the   Silk   hen,   which  is   incapable   of  fli-ht,   we   see   tliat   tlie 
wings,  relatively  to  the  legs,  are  slightly  increased  in  weight;  but 


Tablk  I. 


1 

2 
3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


Names  of  Breeds. 


Gallus  bankiva  .     .     .  wild  male 

Cocliin male 

Dorking male 

Spanish  (Minorca)  .  .  male 
Gold-Spangled  Polish  male 
Game,  black-breasted  .  male 

Malay female 

Sultan male 

Indian  Frizzled .     .     .  male 
Burmese  jumper     .     .female 
Hamburgh  (pencilled)  male 
Haml>urgli  (pencilled)  female 
Silk  1  black-boned; .     .  female 


Actual 
Weight 

of 

Foinur 

and 

Tibia. 


Grains. 

86 
311 
557 
380 
306 
293 
231 
189 
206 

53 
157 
114 

88 


Actual 

Wfiglil  of 

lliiiucrus 

and  Lliia. 


Grains. 

54 

162 

248 

183 

145 

143 

116 

94 

88 

36 

104 

77 

57 


Wc'ighi  of  Winp- 
honi.-  rtlatively  to 
llir  I.f;;-lj<)n(H  in 
c<inij)ari^()n  with 
tluse  buiiif  I)une8 
in  G.  bail  kit  a. 


100 

83 

70 

75 

75 

77 

80 

79 

67 

108 

1U6 

108 

103 


it  should  be  observed  that,  if  in  these  birds  the  legs  had  become 
from  any  cause  reduced  in  weight,  this  would  give  the  false  ap- 
pearance of  the  wings  having  increased  in  reUitive  weight.  Now  a 
reduction  of  this  nature  has  certainly  occurred  with  tlie  Burmese 
Juniper,  in  which  the  legs  are  abnormally  short,  and  in  the  two 
Haniburghs  and  Silk  fowl,  the  legs,  though  not  short,  are  formed 
of  remarkably  thin  and  light  bones.  I  make  these  stateuients.  not 
judging  by  mere  eyesight,  but  after  having  calculated  the  weights 
of  the  leg-bones  relatively  to  those  of  G.  bankira,  according  to  the 
only  two  standards  of  comparison  which  I  could  use,  nniuely.  tlie 
relative  lengths  of  the  head  and  sternum ;  for  I  do  not  know  tiie 
weight  of  the  hodv  in  G.  hanJx-ira,  which  would  have  been  a  better 
standard.  According  to  these  standards,  the  leg- bones  in  these 
four  fowls  are  in  a  marked  manner  far  lighter  than  in  any  other 
breed.  It  may  therefore  be  concluded  that  in  all  cases  in  which 
the  legs  have  not  been  through  some  unknown  cause  much  reduced 
in  weight,  the  wing-bones  have  become  reduced  in  wciglit  reh\- 
tively  to  the  leg-bones,  in  comparison  with  those  of  G.  Ii<i)ikira. 
And  this  reduction  of  weight  may,  I  apprelicnd,  safely  be  attrib- 
uted to  disuse. 

To  make  the  foregoing  table  quite  satisfactory,  it  ought  to  have 
been  shown  that  in  the  eight  first  birds  the  leg-bones  have  not 
actually  increased  in  weight  out  of  due  proportion  with  the  rest 
of  the 'body;  this  I  cannot  show,  from  not  knowing,  as  already 


282 


FOWLS. 


Chap.  VII. 


remarked,  the  weight  of  the  wild  BankivaJ*  I  am  indeed  inclined 
to  suspect  that  the  leg-bones  in  the  Dorking,  No.  2  in  the  table, 
are  proportionally  too  heavy;  but  this  bird  was  a  very  large  one, 
weighing  7  lb.  2  oz.,  though  very  thin.  Its  leg-bones  were  more 
than  ten  times  as  heavy  as  those  of  the  Burmese  Jumper!  I  tried 
to  ascertain  the  length  both  of  the  leg-bones  and  wing-bones  rela- 
tively to  other  parts  of  the  body  and  skeleton:  but  the  whole  or- 
ganisation in  these  birds,  which  have  been  so  long  domesticated, 
has  become  so  variable,  that  no  certain  conclusions  could  be 
reached.  For  instance,  the  legs  of  the  above  Dorking  cock  were 
nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch  too  short  relatively  to  the  length 
of  the  sternum,  and  more  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  too  long 
relatively  to  the  length  of  the  skull,  in  comparison  with  these 
same  parts  in  G.  banl'iva. 

In  the  folkuving  Table  IT.  in  the  two  first  columns  we  see  in 
inches  and  decimals  the  length  of  the  sternum,  and  the  extreme 
depth  of  its  crest  to  which  the  pectoral  muscles  are  attached.  In 
the  third  column  we  have  the  calculated  depth  of  the  crest,  rela- ^ 
tively  to  the  length  of  the  sternum,  in  comparison  with  these  same 
parts  in  G.  bankiva.''^ 

Table  II. 


I 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


Names  of  Breeds. 


Gallus  bankiva  ....  male 

Cochin male 

Dorking male 

Spanish male 

Polish male 

Game male 

Malay female 

Sultan male 

Frizzled  hen male 

Burmese  Jumper    .     .     .  female 

Hamburgh male 

Hamburgh female 

Silk  fowl female 


Length  of 
Sternum. 


Inches. 
4.20 
5.83 
6.95 
6.10 
5.07 
5.55 
5.10 
4.47 
4.25 
3.06 
5.08 
4.55 
4.49 


Dppth  of 
Crest  of 
Sternum. 


Inches. 
1.40 
1.55 
1.97 
1.83 
1.50 
1.55 
1.50 
1.36 
1.20 
0.85 
1.40 
1.26 
1.01 


Depth  of  Crest 

relatively  to  the 

length  of  the 

Sternum,  in 

comparison  with 

G.  bankiva. 


100 
78 
84 
90 
87 
81 
87 
90 
84 
81 
81 
81 
66 


Bv  looking  to  the  third  column  we  see 
depth   of   the   crest   relatively   to   the 


length 


that  in  every  case  the 
of  the   sternum,   in 


■'*  Mr.  Blyth  (in  '  Annals  and 
Mag.  of  Nat  Hist.,'  2nd  series, 
vol.  i.,  1848.  p.  4.50)  gives  3J  lb. 
as  the  weight  of  a  full-grown 
male  G.  bankiva :  but  from  what 
I  have  seen  of  the  skins  and  skel- 
etons of  various  breeds,  I  cannot 


believe  that  my  two  specimens  of 
G.  bankiva  could  have  weighed  so 
much. 

"5  The  third  column  is  calcu- 
lated on  the  same  principle  as  ex- 
plained in  the  previous  foot-note, 
p.  280. 


Chap.  VII.        CORRELATION  OF  GROWTH.  283 

comparison  with  G.  JmnUva,  is  cliininished,  froncnillv  between  10 
and  20  per  cent.  But  the  degree  of  reduction  varie.s'much,  partly 
m  consequence  of  the  frequently  deformed  state  of  the  sUMiiiini. 
In  the  Silk  fowl,  which  cannot  fly,  the  crest  is  34  per  cent,  less  deep 
than  wliat  it  ouglit  to  have  been.  This  reduction  of  the  crest  in 
all  the  breeds  probably  accounts  for  the  great  vaiiabiliiy,  before 
referred  to,  in  the  curvature  of  the  furculum,  and  in  the  shape  of 
its  sternal  extremity.  Medical  men  believe  that  the  abnoniml 
form  of  the  spine  so  commonly  observed  in  women  of  the  higher 
ranks  results  from  the  attached  muscles  not  being  fully  c\crcr-.('(l. 
So  it  is  Avith  our  domestic  fowls,  for  they  use  their  pec-toral  mus- 
cles but  little,  and,  out  of  twenty-live  sternums  examined  by  me, 
three  alone  were  perfectly  symmetrical,  ten  were  moderately 
crooked,  and  twelve  were  deformed  to  an  extreme  degree.  Mr. 
Romanes,  however,  believes  that  the  malformation  is  due  to  fowls 
whilst  young  resting  their  sternums  on  the  sticks  on  which  they 
roost. 

Finally,  we  may  conclude  with  respect  to  the  various 
breeds  of  the  fowl,  that  the  main  bones  of  the  wing  have 
probably  been  shortened  in  a  very  slight  degree;  that  they 
have  certainly  become  lighter  relatively  to  the  leg-bones  in  all 
the  breeds  in  which  these  latter  bones  are  not  unnaturally 
short  or  delicate;  and  that  the  crest  of  the  sternum,  to 
which  the  pectoral  muscles  are  attached,  has  invariably  be- 
come less  prominent,  the  whole  sternum  being  also  extremely 
liable  to  deformity.  These  results  we  may  attribute  to  the 
lessened  use  of  the  wings. 

Correlation  of  Growth. — I  will  here  sum  up  the  few  facts, 
which  I  have  collected  on  this  obscure,  but  important,  sub- 
ject. In  Cochin  and  Game  fowls  there  is  perhaps  some  rela- 
tion between  the  colour  of  the  plumage  and  the  darkness  of 
the  egg-shell.  In  Sultans  the  additional  sickle-feathers  of 
the  tail  are  apparently  related  to  the  general  redundancy  of 
the  plumage,  as  shown  by  the  feathered  legs,  large  crest,  and 
beard.  In  two  tailless  fowls  wdiich  I  examined  the  oil-gland 
was  aborted.  A  large  crest  of  feathers,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier 
has  remarked,  seems  always  accompanied  by  a  great  dimi- 
nution or  almost  entire  absence  of  the  comb.  A  large  beard 
is  similarly  accompanied  by  diminished  or  absent  wattles. 
These  latter  cases  apparently  come  under  the  law  of  compen- 
sation or  balancement  of  growth.  A  large  beard  beneath 
the  lower  jaw  and  a  large  top-knot  on  the  skull  often  go 
together.     The  comb  when  of  any  peculiar  shape,  as  with 


284  FOWLS.  Chap.  VII. 

Horned,  Spanish,  and  Hamburgh  fowls,  affects  in  a  corre- 
sponding manner  the  underlying  skull;  and  we  have  seen 
how  wonderfully  this  is  the  case  with  Crested  fowls  when 
the  crest  is  largely  developed.  AVitli  the  protuberance  of  the 
frontal  bones  the  shape  of  the  internal  surface  of  the  skull 
and  of  the  brain  is  greatly  modified.  The  presence  of  a  crest 
influences  in  some  unknown  way  the  development  of  the 
ascending  branches  of  the  premaxillary  bone,  and  of  the 
inner  processes  of  the  nasal  bones;  and  likewise  the  shape  of 
the  external  orifice  of  the  nostrils.  There  is  a  plain  and  curi- 
ous correlation  between  a  crest  of  feathers  and  the  imperfect- 
ly ossified  condition  of  the  skull.  Xot  only  does  this  hold 
good  with  nearly  all  crested  fowls,  but  likewise  with  tufted 
ducks,  and  as  Dr.  Giinther  informs  me  with  tufted  geese  in 
Germany. 

Lastly,  the  feathers  composing  the  crest  in  male  Polish 
fowls  resemble  hackles,  and  differ  greatly  in  shape  from  those 
in  the  crest  of  the  female.  The  neck,  wing-coverts,  and  loins 
in  the  male  bird  are  properly  covered  with  hackles,  and  it 
ivould  appear  that  feathers  of  this  shape  have  spread  by 
correlation  to  the  head  of  the  male.  This  little  fact  is  in- 
teresting; because,  though  both  sexes  of  some  wild  gallina- 
ceous birds  have  their  heads  similarly  ornamented,  yet  there 
is  often  a  difference  in  the  size  and  shape  of  feathers  form- 
ing their  crests.  Furthermore,  there  is  in  some  cases,  as  in 
the  male  Gold  and  in  the  male  Amlierst  pheasants  (F.  pictus 
and  amlierstice),  a  close  relation  in  colour,  as  well  as  in 
structure,  between  the  plumes  on  the  head  and  on  the  loins. 
It  would  therefore  appear  that  the  same  law  has  regulated  the 
state  of  the  feathers  on  the  head  and  body,  both  with  species 
living  under  natural  conditions,  and  with  birds  which  have 
varied  under  domestication. 


Chap,  VIII.  DOMESTIC  DUCKS.  285 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

DUCK — GOOSE PEACOCK — TUllKEY — GUINEA-FOWL — CANAUY- 

BIRD GOLD-FISH — HIVE-BEES — SILK-MOTHS. 

Ducks,  several  breeds  of— Progress  of  domestication— Origin  of  from  the 
common  wild-duck— Diflerences  in  the  difterent  breeds — Osteological 
differences — Eflects  of  use  and  disuse  on  the  limb-bones. 

Goose,  anciently  domesticated — Little  variation  of — Sebastopol  breed. 

Peacock,  origin  of  black-shouldered  breed. 

Turkey,  breeds  of— Crossed  with  the  United  States  species— Effects  of 
climate  on. 

Guinea- Fowl,  Canaky-Bird,  Gold-Fish,  Hive-Bees. 

SiLK-MoTHS,  species  and  breeds  of — Anciently  domesticated — Care  in 
their  selection — Differences  in  the  different  races — In  the  egg,  cater- 
pillar and  cocoon  states — Inheritance  of  characters — Imperfect  wings 
— Lost  instincts — Correlated  characters. 

I  WILL,  as  in  previous  cases,  first  briefly  describe  the  chief 
domestic  breeds  of  the  duck: — 

Breed  1.  Common  Domestic  Duck. — Varies  much  in  colour  and 
in  proportions,  and  differs  in  instincts  and  disposition  from  the 
wild  duck.  There  are  several  sub-breeds:  —  (1)  The  Aylesbury,  of 
gieat  size,  white,  with  pale-yellow  beak  and  legs;  abdominal  der- 
mal sack  largely  developed.  (2)  The  Rouen,  of  great  size,  coloured 
like  the  wikl  duck,  with  green  or  mottled  beak ;  dermal  sack 
largely  developed.  (3)  Tufted  Duck,  with  a  large  top-knot  of  line 
downy  feathers,  supported  on  a  fleshy  mass,  with  the  skull  per- 
forated beneath.  The  top-knot  in  a  duck  which  J  imported  from 
Holland  was  two  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter.  (4)  Labrador  |or 
Canadian,  or  Buenos  Ayres,  or  East  Indian);  plumage  entirely 
black:  beak  broader,  relatively  to  its  length,  than  in  the  wild 
duck;  eggs  slightly  tinted  with  black.  This  sub-breed  perha|is 
ought  to  be  ranked  as  a  breed;  it  includes  two  sub-varieties,  one 
as  large  as  the  common  domestic  duck,  which  T  have  ke])t  alive, 
and  the  other  smaller  and  often  capable  of  flight.^  I  presume  it  is 
this  latter  sub-variety  which  has  been  descril)ed  in  France  =  as  fly- 
ing well,  being  rather  wild,  and  when  cooked  having  the  flavour 
of  the  wild  duck;  nevertheless  this  sub-variety  is  polygamous,  like 
other  domesticated  ducks  and  unlike  the  wild  duck.  These  black 
Labrador  ducks  breed  true;  but  a  case  is  given  by  Dr.  Tunal  of 
the  French  sub-variety  producing  young  with  some  while  feathers 

1  '  Poultry     Chronicle  '     (1S54),        d'Acclimat.,'    torn.    viL,    ISGO.    p. 
vol.  ii.  p.  91,  and  vol.  1.  p.  330.  54L 

•  Dr.     Turral,     in     '  Bull.     Soc. 


286 


DOMESTIC  DUCKS. 


Chap.  VIII. 


on  the  head  and  neck,  and  with  an  ochre-coloured  patch  on  the 
breast, 

Bkeed  2.  Hook-billed  Duck. — This  bird  presents  an  extraor- 
dinary appearance  from  the  down^^•ard  curvature  of  the  beak. 
The  head  is  often  tufted.  The  common  colour  is  white,  but  some 
are  coloured  like  wild  ducks.  It  is  an  ancient  breed,  having  been 
noticed  in  1676.'^  It  shows  its  prolonged  domestication  by  almost 
incessantly  laying  eggs,  like  the  fowls  which  are  called  everlast- 
ing layers.* 

Breed  3.  Call  Duck. — Remarkable  from  its  small  size,  and 
from  the  extraordinary  loquacity  of  the  female.  Beak  short. 
These  birds  are  either  white,  or  coloured  like  the  wild  duck. 

Breed  4.  Fcmjiiin  Duck. — -This  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all 
the  breeds,  and  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  Malayan  archi- 
pelago. It  walks  witli  its  body  extremely  erect,  and  with  its  thin 
neck  stretched  straight  upwards.  Beak  rather  short.  Tail  up- 
turned, including  only  18  feathers.  Femur  and  metatarsus  elon- 
gated. 


Almost  all  naturalists  admit  that  the  several  breeds  are 
descended  from  the  common  wild  duck  {Anas  hoschas) ;  most 
fanciers,  on  the  other  hand,  take  as  usual  a  very  different 
view.^  Unless  we  deny  that  domestication,  prolonged  during- 
centuries,  can  affect  even  such  unimportant  characters  as 
colour,  size,  and  in  a  slight  degree  proportional  dimensions 
and  mental  disposition,  there  is  no  reason  whatever  to  doubt 
that  the  domestic  duck  is  descended  from  the  common  wild 
species,  for  the  one  differs  from  the  other  in  no  important 
character.  We  have  some  historical  evidence  with  respect  to 
the  period  and  progress  of  the  domestication  of  the  duck. 
It  was  unknown  **  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  to  the  Jews  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  to  the  Greeks  of  the  Homeric  period. 
About  eighteen  centuries  ago  Columella  ^  and  Varro  speak  of 
the  necessity  of  keeping  ducks  in  netted  enclosures  like  other 


3  Willu^liby's  'Ornithology,'  by 
Ray,  p.  ;i81.  This  breed  is  also 
figured  bv  Albin,  in  1734,  in  tiis 
'  Nat.  Hist,  of  Birds,'  vol.  ii. 
p.  8(3. 

*  F.  Cuvier,  in  '  Annales  du 
Mnseura,'  torn.  ix.  p.  128,  says 
that  moulting  and  incubation 
alone  stops  these  ducks  laying. 
Mr.  B.  P.  Brent  makes  a  similar 
remark  in  the  '  Poultry  Chroni- 
cle," 1855,  vol.   iii.  p.  512. 

5  Bev.  E.  S.  Dixon.  '  Ornamen- 
tal and  Domestic  Poultrv.'  (1848), 
p.  117.     Mr.  B.  P.  Brent,  in  '  Poul- 


try Chronicle,'  vol.  iii.,  1855,  p. 
512. 

•^  Crawfurd  on  the  '  Relation  of 
Domesticated  Animals  to  Civili- 
sation,' read  before  the  Brit.  As- 
soc,  at  Oxford,  1860. 

^  Dureau  de  la  Malle,  in  '  An- 
nales des  Sciences  Nat..'  tom. 
xvii.  p.  164;  and  tom.  xxi.  p.  55. 
Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  '  Ornamental 
Poultry.'  p.  118.  Tame  ducks 
were  not  known  in  Aristotle's 
time,  as  remarked  by  Volz.  in  his 
'  Beitriige  zur  Culturgeschichte,' 
1852,  s.  78. 


Chap.  VIII.  EXTER^^AL  DIFFERENCES.  oj^Y 

wild  fowl,  so  that  at  this  period  there  was  danger  of  their 
ilying  away.  Moreover,  the  plan  recommended  by  Columella 
to  those  who  wish  to  increase  their  stock  of  ducks,  namely, 
to  collect  the  eggs  of  the  wild  bird  and  to  place  them  under 
a  hen,  shows,  as  Mr.  Dixon  remarks,  "  that  the  duck  hud 
not  at  this  time  become  a  naturalized  and  prolific  inmate  of 
the  Roman  poultry-yard."  The  origin  of  the  domestic  duck 
from  the  wild  species  is  recognised  in  nearly  every  language 
of  Europe,  as  Aldrovandi  long  ago  remarked,  by  the  same 
name  being  applied  to  both.  The  wild  duck  has  a  wide 
range  from  the  Himalayas  to  North  America.  It  crosses 
readily  with  the  domestic  bird,  and  the  crossed  offspring  are 
perfectly  fertile. 

Both  in  North  America  and  Europe  the  wild  duck  has 
been  found  easy  to  tame  and  breed.  In  Sweden  this  experi- 
ment was  carefully  tried  by  Tiburtius;  he  succeeded  in  rear- 
ing wild  ducks  for  three  generations,  but,  though  they  were 
treated  like  common  ducks,  they  did  not  vary  even  in  a 
single  feather.  The  young  birds  suffered  from  being  allowed 
to  swim  about  in  cold  water,^  as  is  known  to  be  the  case, 
though  the  fact  is  a  strange  one,  with  the  young  of  the 
common  domestic  duck.  An  accurate  and  well-known  ob- 
server in  England "  has  described  in  detail  his  often  repeated 
and  successful  experiments  in  domesticating  the  wild  duck. 
Young  birds  are  easily  reared  from  eggs  hatched  under  a 
bantam;  but  to  succeed  it  is  indispensable  not  to  place  the 
eggs  of  both  the  wild  and  tame  duck  under  the  same  hen, 
for  in  this  case  "  the  young  wild  ducks  die  off,  leaving  their 
more  hardy  brethren  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  fos- 
ter-mother's care.  The  difference  of  habit  at  the  onset  in 
the  newly-hatched  ducklings  almost  entails  such  a  result  to  a 
certainty."  The  wild  ducklings  were  from  the  first  quite 
tame  towards  those  who  took  care  of  them  as  long  as  they 
wore  the  same  clothes,  and  likewise  to  the  dogs  and  cats  of 
the  house.     They  would  even  snap  with  their  beaks  at  tlie 

8  1     quote    this    account     from  vol.    viii.,    IS?."),    p.    •"''■l-:    :»"'1    ^^j;- 

'Die  Enten-  und  Schwanenzncht.'  St.   John.   '  Wild   Ni<>i-f>^  .""••   ;^-';. 

Ulm,  1S28,  s.  143.     See  Audubon's  Hist,   of  the  Hi^'hlauds,     1S4(.,   p. 

'  Ornitholofjical     Biography,'     vol.  129. 

iii.  p.  Ifi8.  on  the  taminjr  of  ducks  »  Mr.  E.  Hewitt    in     Journal  of 

on  the  Mississippi.     For  the  same  Horticulture,     IbbJ,    p.    M.i;    ana 

fact  in  England,  see  Mr.  Waterton  1S03,  p.  30. 
in  Loudon's  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,' 


288  DOMESTIC  DUCKS.  Chap.  VIIL 

dogs,  and  drive  them  away  from  any  spot  which  they  coveted. 
But  they  were  much  alarmed  at  strange  men  and  dogs. 
Differently  from  what  occurred  in  Sweden,  Mr.  Hewitt  found 
that  his  young  birds  always  changed  and  deteriorated  in 
character  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  generations ;  not- 
withstanding that  great  care  was  taken  to  prevent  their 
crossing  with  tame  ducks.  After  the  third  generation  his 
birds  lost  the  elegant  carriage  of  the  wild  species,  and  began 
to  acquire  the  gait  of  the  common  duck.  They  increased  in 
size  in  each  generation,  and  their  legs  became  less  fine.  The 
white  collar  round  the  neck  of  the  mallard  became  broader 
and  less  regular,  and  some  of  the  longer  primary  wing-feathers 
became  more  or  less  white.  When  this  occurred,  Mr.  Hewitt 
destroyed  nearly  the  whole  of  his  stock  and  procured  fresh 
eggs  from  wild  nests;  so  that  he  never  bred  the  same  family 
for  more  than  five  or  six  generations.  His  birds  continued 
to  pair  together,  and  never  became  polygamous  like  the  com- 
mon domestic  duck.  I  have  given  these  details,  because 
no  other  case,  as  far  as  I  know,  has  been  so  carefully  recorded 
by  a  competent  observer  of  the  progress  of  change  in  wild 
birds  reared  for  several  generations  in  a  domestic  condition. 
From  these  considerations  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt 
that  the  wild  duck  is  the  parent  of  the  common  domestic 
kind;  nor  need  we  look  to  other  species  for  the  parentage  of 
the  more  distinct  breeds,  namely.  Penguin,  Call,  Hook-billed, 
Tufted,  and  Labrador  ducks.  I  will  not  repeat  the  argu- 
ments used  in  the  previous  chapters  on  the  improbability  of 
man  having  in  ancient  times  domesticated  several  species 
since  become  unknown  or  extinct,  though  ducks  are  not  read- 
ily exterminated  in  the  wild  state; — on  some  of  the  supposed 
parent-species  having  had  abnormal  characters  in  comparison 
with  all  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  as  with  Hook-billed 
and  Penguin  ducks; — on  all  the  breeds,  as  far  as  is  known 
being  fertile  together ; '" — on  all  the  breeds  having  the  same 
general  disposition,  instinct,  &c.  But  one  fact  bearing  on 
this  question  may  be  noticed:  in  the  great  duck  family,  one 

^0  1  have  met  with  several  state-  billed  and  rommon  ducks,    and   a 

ments  on  the  fertility  of  the  sev-  Penguin    and    La])rador.    and    rhe 

eral    breeds    when    crossed.      Mr.  crossed  Ducks  were  quite  fertile, 

Yarrell  assured  me  that  Call  and  thoucrh  they   were   not   bred   inter 

common  ducks  are  perfectly  fer-  sr.    so    that    the    experiment    was 

tile    together.      I    crossed    Hook-  not   fully  tried.      Some   half-bred 


Chap.  VIII.  EXTERNAL   DIFFERENCES. 


280 


species  alone,  namely,  the  male  of  A.  hose  has,  has  its  four 
middle  tail-feathers  curled  upwardly;  now  in  every  one  of 
the  above-named  domestic  breeds  these  curled  feathers  ex- 
ist, and  on  the  supposition  that  they  are  descended  from 
distinct  species,  we  must  assume  that  man  formerly  hit  upon 
species  all  of  which  had  this  now  unique  character.  More- 
over, sub-varieties  of  each  breed  are  coloured  almost  exactly 
like  the  wild  duck,  as  I  have  seen  with  the  largest  and  small- 
est breeds,  namely  Eouens  and  Call  ducks,  and,  as  Mr.  Brent 
states,"  is  the  case  with  Hook  billed  ducks.  This  gentleman^ 
as  he  informs  me,  crossed  a  white  Aylesbury  drake  and  a 
black  Labrador  duck,  and  some  of  the  ducklings  as  they  grew 
up  assumed  the  plumage  of  the  wild  duck. 

With  respect  to  Penguins,  I  have  not  seen  many  speci- 
mens, and  none  were  coloured  precisely  like  the  wifd  duck; 
but  Sir  James  Brooke  sent  me  three  skins  from  Lombok 
and  Bali,  in  the  Malayan  archipelago;  the  two  females  were 
paler  and  more  rufous  than  the  wild  duck,  and  the  drake  dif- 
fered in  having  the  whole  under  and  upper  surface  (except- 
ing the  neck,  tail-coverts,  tail,  and  wings)  silver-grey,  finely 
pencilled  with  dark  lines,  closely  like  certain  parts  of  the 
plumage  of  the  wild  mallard.  But  I  found  this  drake  to  be 
identical  in  every  feather  wdth  a  variety  of  the  common  breed 
procured  from  a  farm-yard  in  Kent,  and  I  have  occasionally 
elsewhere  seen  similar  specimens.  The  ocurrence  of  a  duck 
bred  under  so  peculiar  a  climate  as  that  of  the  Malayan  archi- 
pelago, where  the  wild  species  does  not  exist,  with  exactly  the 
same  plumage  as  may  occasionally  be  seen  in  our  farm-yards, 
is  a  fact  worth  notice.  jSTevertheless  the  climate  of  the 
Malayan  archipelago  apparently  tends  to  cause  the  duck  to 
vary  much,  for  Zollinger,^^  speaking  of  the  Penguin  breed, 
says  that  in  Lombok  "  there  is  an  unusual  and  very  wonderful 
variety  of  ducks."  One  Penguin  drake  which  I  kept  alive 
differed  from  those  of  which  the  skins  were  sent  me  from 
Lombock,  in  having  its  breast  and  back  partially  coloured 
with  chestnut-brown,  thus  more  closely  resembling  the 
Mallard. 

Penguins     and     Labradors     were  ^^  '  Poultry      Chronielo,'      18.'j.'», 

again  crossed  with  Peniruins,  and  vol.  ill.  p.  '>V2. 

subsequently  bred  by  me  info's",  '2.. formal    of    the    Indian    Ar- 

and  they  were  extremely  fertile.  chipelago,'  vol.  v.  p.  .'3o4. 


290  DOMESTIC  DUCKS.  Chap.  VIII. 

From  these  several  facts,  more  especially  from  the  drakes 
of  all  the  breeds  having  curled  tail-feathers,  and  from  certain 
sub-varieties  in  each  breed  occasionally  resembling  in  gen- 
eral plumage  the  wild  duck,  we  may  conclude  with  confidence 
that  all  the  breeds  are  descended  from  A.  hoschas. 

I  will  now  notice  some  of  the  peculiarities  characteristic  of  the 
several  breeds.  The  eggs  vary  in  colour;  some  common  ducks 
laying  pale-greenish  and  others  quite  white  eggs.  The  eggs  which 
are  first  laid  during  each  season  by  the  black  Labrador  duck,  are 
tinted  black,  as  if  rubbed  with  ink.  A  good  observer  assured  me 
that  one  year  his  ducks  of  this  breed  laid  almost  perfectly  white 
eggs.  Another  curious  case  shows  what  singular  A'ariations  some- 
times occur  and  are  inherited;  Mr.  Hansell  "  relates  that  he  had 
a  common  duck  which  always  laid  eggs  with  the  yolk  of  a  dark- 
brown  colour  like  melted  glue;  and  the  young  ducks,  hatched 
from  these  eggs,  laid  the  same  kind  of  eggs,  so  that  the  breed  had 
to  be  destroyed. 

The  Hook-billed  duck  is  highly  remarkable  (see  Fig.  of  skull, 
woodcut  No.  39)  ;  and  its  peculiar  beak  lias  been  inherited  at 
least  since  the  year  1676.  This  structure  is  evidently  analogous 
Avith  that  described  in  the  Bagadotten  carrier  pigeon.  Mr.  Brent  ^* 
savs  that,  when  Hook-billed  ducks  are  crossed  with  common  ducks, 
"  many  young  ones  are  produced  with  the  upper  mandible  shorter 
than  the  lower,  which  not  unfrequently  causes  the  death  of  the 
bird."  ^^'ith  ducks  a  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  head  is  by  no  means  a 
rare  occurrence:  namely,  in  the  True-tufted  breed,  the  Hook-billed, 
the  common  farm-yard  kind,  and  in  a  duck  having  no  other  pecu- 
liarity which  was  sent  to  me  from  the  Malayan  archipelago.  The 
tuft  is  only  so  far  interesting  as  it  affects  the  skull,  which  is  thus 
rendered  slightl}^  more  globular,  and  is  perforated  by  numerous 
apertures.  Call  ducks  are  remarkable  from  their  extraordinary 
loquacity:  the  drake  only  hisses  like  common  drakes;  neverthe- 
less, when  paired  with  the  common  duck,  he  transmits  to  his  fe- 
male offspring  a  strong  quacking  tendency.  This  loquacity  seems 
at  first  a  surprising  character  to  have  been  acquired  under  domesti- 
cation. But  the  voice  varies  in  the  different  breeds;  Mr.  Brent" 
says  that  Hook-billed  ducks  are  very  loquacious,  and  that  Eouens 
litter  a  "  dull,  loud,  and  monotonous  cry,  easily  distinguishable  by 
an  experienced  ear."  As  the  loquacity  of  the  Call  duck  is  highly 
serviceable,  these  birds  being  used  in  decoys,  this  qualit}^  may  have 
been  increased  by  selection.  For  instance,  Colonel  Hawker  says,  if 
young  wild  ducks  cannot  be  got  for  a  decoy,  "  by  way  of  make- 
shift, select  tame  birds  which  are  the  most  clamorous,  even  if  their 
colour  should  not  be  like  that  of  wild  ones."  ^^     It  has  been  er- 

"  '  The     Zoologist,'     vols,     vii.,  1855.    p.    .312.      With    respect    to 

viii.  (1849-1850),  p.  2353.  Rouens,    see    ditto,    vol.    i.,    1854, 

"  '  Poultry      Chronicle,'      1855,  p.  1B7. 

vol.  iii.  p.  512.  i*'  Col.   Hawker's   '  Instructions 

IS  '  Poultry  Chronicle,'  vol.  iii.,  to  young  Sportsmen,'   quoted   by 


Chap.  YIII.    DIFFEREXCES  IX  THEIIl  SKELETONS.         291 

roneously  asserted  that  Call  ducks  hatch  their  eirffs  in  less  time 
than  common  ducks.'^ 

The  Penguin  duck  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  breeds-  the 
thm  neck  and  body  are  carried  erect;  the  wings  are  small;  the  tail 
is  upturned;  and  the  thigh-bones  and  metatarsi  are  considerably 
lengthened  m  proportion  with  the  same  bones  in  the  wild  duck. 
In  five  specimens  examined  by  me  there  were  only  eighteen  tail- 
feathers  instead  of  twenty  as  in  the  wild  duck;  but  I  have  also 
found  only  eighteen  and  nineteen  tail-feathers  in  two  Labrador 
ducks.  On  the  middle  toe,  in  three  specimens,  there  were  twenlv- 
seven  or  twenty-eight  scutella?,  whereas  in  two  wild  ducks  there 
were  thirty-one  and  thirty-two.  The  Penguin  when  crossed  trans- 
mits with  much  power  its  peculiar  form  of  body  and  gait  to  its 
ofl'spring;  this  was  manifest  with  some  hybrids  raised  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens  between  one  of  these  birds  and  the  Egyptian  goose  " 
{Ansvr  wgijptiucus),  and  likewise  with  some  mongrels  wliieh  I 
raised  between  the  Penguin  and  Labrador  duck.  I  am  nut  much 
surprised  that  some  writers  should  maintain  that  this  breed  nuist 
be  descended  from  an  unknown  and  distinct  sj)ecies;  but  from  the 
reasons  already  assigned,  it  seems  to  me  far  more  probable  that  it 
is  the  descendant,  much  modified  by  domestication  under  an  un- 
natural climate,  of  Anas  boscJias. 

Osteologlcal  Characters. — The  skulls  of  the  several  breeds  dilTer 
from  each  other  and  from  the  skull  of  the  wild  duck  in  very  Utile 
except  in  the  proportional  length  and  curvature  of  the  jjremaxil- 
laries.  These  latter  bones  in  the  Call  duck  are  short,  and  a  line 
drawn  from  their  extremities  to  the  summit  of  the  skull  is  nearly 
straight,  instead  of  being  concave  as  in  the  common  duck ;  so  tliat 
the  skull  resembles  that  of  a  small  goose.  In  the  Hook-billed  duck 
(Fig.  39),  these  same  bones  as  Mell  as  the  lower  jaw  curve  down- 
wards in  a  most  remarkable  manner,  as  represented.  In  the  Lab- 
rador duck  the  premaxillaries  are  rather  broader  than  in  the  wild 
duck;  and  in  two  skulls  of  this  breed  the  vertical  ridges  on  each 
side  of  the  supra-occipital  bone  are  very  prominent.  In  the  Pen- 
guin the  premaxillaries  are  relatively  shorter  than  in  the  wild 
duck,  and  the  inferior  points  of  the  paramastoids  more  prominent. 
In  a  Dutch  tufted  duck,  the  skull  under  the  enoimous  tuft  was 
slightly  more  globular  and  was  perforated  by  two  large  apertures; 
in  this  skull  the  lachrymal  bones  were  produced  much  further 
backwards,  so  as  to  have  a  different  shape  and  nonrly  to  touch  the 
post.  lat.  processes  of  the  frontal  bones,  thus  almost  completing 
the  bony  orbit  of  the  eye.  As  the  quadrate  and  pterygoid  bones 
are  of  such  complex  shape  and  stand  in  lelation  with  so  many 
other  bones,  I  carefully  compared  them  in  all  the  principal  breeds; 
but  excepting  in  size  they  presented  no  difference. 

Yertebrce   and   Ribs.— In   one   skeleton   of   the   Labrador   duck 

Mr.    Dixon    in    his    'Ornamental  '«  These  hv])i-i(ls  have  hern  <1p- 

Poultrv,'    p.    125.  .scril)0(l    by    M.    Selys-L<»ii;.'clianuis 

"  '  Cottage     Gardener,'      April  in    the    '  Rnlletiiis    (toni.    xii.    No. 

9th,  1861.  10)  Acad.  Roj'.  de  Bruxelles.' 
20 


292 


DOMESTIC   DUCKS. 


Chap.  VIII. 


there  were  the  usual  fifteen  cervical  vertebrae  and  the  usual  nine 
dorsal  vertebrae  bearing  ribs;  in  the  other  skeleton  there  were  tit- 
teen  cervical  and  ten  dorsal  vertebrae  with  ribs;  nor,  as  far  as 
could  be  judged,  was  this  owing  merely  to  a  rib  having  been  de- 


FiG.  39. — Skulls,  viewed  laterally,   reduced  to  two-thirds  of  the  natural 
size.     A.   Wild  Duck.     B.  Hook-billed  Duck. 

veloped  on  the  first  lumbar  vertebra:  for  in  both  skeletons  the 
lumbar  vertebrae  agi'eed  perfectly  in  number,  shape,  and  size  with 
those  of  the  wild  duck.  In  two  skeletons  of  the  Call  duck  there 
were  fifteen  cervical  and  nine  dorsal  vertebrae:  in  a  third  skeleton 
small  ribs  were  attached  to  the  so-called  fifteenth  cervical  verte- 
bra, making  ten  pairs  of  ribs;  but  these  ten  rilis  do  not  corre- 
spond, or  arise  from  the  same  vertebra.  Avith  the  ten  in  the  above- 
mentioned  Labrador  duck.  In  the  Call  duck,  which  had  small  ribs 
attached  to  the  fifteenth  cervical  vertebra,  the  haemal  spines  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  (cervical)  and  of  the  seventeenth  (dor- 
sal) vertebrae  correspond  with  the  spines  on  the  fourteenth,  fif- 
teenth, and  eighteenth  vertebrae  of  the  wild  duck:  so  that  each  of 
these  vertebrae  had  acquired  a  structure  proper  to  one  posterior  to 
it  in  position.  In  the  eigbtb  cervical  vertebra  of  this  saine  Call 
duck  (Big.  40,  B),  the  two  branches  of  the  haemal  spine  stand 
much  closer  tosether  than  in  the  wild  duck  (A),  and  the  descend- 
ing  haemal  processes  are  much  shortened.  In  the  Penguin  duck 
the  neck  from  its  thinness  and  erectness  falsely  appears  (as  ascer- 
tained by  measurement)  to  be  much  elongated,  but  the  cervical 
and  dorsal  vertebrae  present  no  difference:  the  posterior  dorsal 
vertebrae,  however,  are  more  completely  anchylosed  to  the  pelvis 
than  in  the  wild  dnck.  The  Aylesbury  duck  has  fifteen  cervical 
and  ten  dorsal  vertebrae  furnished  with  ribs,  but  the  same  number 


Chap.  VIII.    DIFFERENCES  IN  THEIR  SKELETONS. 


293 


of  lumbar,  sacral,  and  caudal  vertebra?,  as  far  as  could  be  traced 
as   m   the   wild   duck.     The   cervical   vortcbvie   in   this   same   duck 
(Fig.   40,   D)    were  inucli   broader  and    llucker   rehitivelv   to   tl...ir 


(Fig.  40,  D)  were  inucli  broader  and 
length  than  in  the  wild  (C)  ;  so  much 
Avortli  while  to  give  a  sketch  of 
the  twelfth  cervical  vertebra  in 
these  two  birds.  From  the  fore- 
going statements  we  see  that  the 
fifteenth  cervical  vertebra  occa- 
sionally becomes  modified  into  a 
dorsal  vertebra,  and  when  this 
occurs  all  the  adjoining  verte- 
brae are  modified.  We  also  see 
that  an  additional  dorsal  verte- 
bra bearing  a  rib  is  occasionally 
developed,  the  number  of  the 
cervical  and  lumbar  vertebrte  ap- 
parently remaining  the  same  as 
usual. 

I  examined  the  bony  enlarge- 
ment of  the  trachea  in  the  males 
of  the  Penguin,  Call,  Hook-billed, 
Labrador,  and  Aylesbury  breeds;  pjQ  40 


tlucker   rehitively   to 
so,  that  1  have  Ihoiu 


their 
;ht  it 


-Cervical  Vertebrje.  of  natu- 


ral size.  A.  Eighth  cervical  verte- 
bra of  Wild  buck,  viewed  on  lia'nial 
surface.  B.  Eighth  cervical  verte- 
bra of  Call  Duck,  viewed  as  above. 
C.  Twelfth  cervical  vertebra  of 
Wild  Duck  viewed  laterally.  D. 
Twelfth  cervical  vertebra  (jf  Ayles- 
bury Duck,  viewed  laterally. 


and    in    all    it    was    identical    in 
shape. 

The  pelvis  is  remarkably  uni- 
form; but  in  the  skeleton  of  the 
Hook-billed  duck  the  anterior 
part  is  much  bowed  inwards; 
in  the  Aylesbury  and  some  other 
breeds  the  ischiadic  foramen  is 
less  elongated.  In  the  sternum,  forculum,  coracoids,  and  scapulre, 
the  difierences  are  so  slight  and  so  variable  as  not  to  be  worth 
notice,  except  that  in  two  skeletons  of  the  Penguim  duck  tlie 
terminal  portion  of  the  scapula  was  much  attenuated. 

In  the  bones  of  the  leg  and  wing  no  modification  in  shajie  could 
be  observed.  But  in  the  Penguin  and  Hook-billed  ducks,  the 
terminal  phalanges  of  the  wing  are  a  little  shortened.  In  the 
former,  the  femur,  and  metatarsus  (but  not  the  tibia)  are  con- 
siderably lengthened,  relatively  to  the  same  bones  in  the  wild  duck, 
and  to  the  wing-bones  in  both  birds.  This  elongation  of  the  leg- 
bones  could  be  seen  whilst  the  bird  was  alive,  and  is  no  doubt  con- 
nected M'ith  its  peculiar  upright  manner  of  walking.  In  a  large 
Aylesbury  duck,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tibia  was  the  only  hone  of 
the  leg  which  relatively  to  the  other  bones  was  slightly  lengthened. 

071  the  effects  of'  the  increased  and  decreased  Use  »f  the 
Li  whs. — In  all  the  breeds  the  bones  of  the  wing  (measured  sepa- 
ratelv  after  having  been  cleaned)  relatively  to  those  of  the  leg  have 
become  slightly  shortened,  in  comparison  with  the  same  bones  in 
the  wild  duck,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table:  — 


294: 


DOMESTIC  DUCKS. 


Chap.  VIII. 


In  the  foregoing  table  we  see,  by  comparison  with  the  wild 
duck,  that  the  reduction  in  the  length  of  the  bones  of  the  wing, 
relatively  to  those  of  the  legs,  though  slight,  is  universal.  The 
reduction  is  least  in  the  Call  duck,  which  has  the  power  and  the 
habit  of  frequently  flying. 

In   weight   there   is   a    orreater   relative   difference   between   the 


bones  of  the  leg  and  wing, 


as 


may  be  seen  in  the  following  table:  — 


Name  of  Breed. 

Weisht  of  Femnr, 
Tibia,  and 
Metatarsus. 

Weight  of 

Humerus.  Radius, 

and  Metacarpus. 

Or  as 

"Wild  mallard 

Aylesbury 

Hooked-bill 

Tufted  r Dutch)     .... 

Penguin  

Labrador 

Call 

Grains. 

54 
164 
107 
111 

75 
141 

57 

Grains. 

97 
204 
160 
148 

90.5 
165 

93 

100  :  179 
100  :  124 
100  :  149 
100  :  133 
100  :  120 
100  :  117 
100  :  163 

"Wild  (another  specimen) 
Common  domestic  duck 


Weight  of  all  the 
Bones  of  the 
Leg  and  Foot. 


Grains. 

66 

127 


Weight  of  all  the 

Bones  of  the 

Wing. 


Grains. 
115 
158 


100  :  173 
100  :  124 


the  considerably  lessened  weight  of 


In  these  domesticated  birds 
the  bones  of  the  wing  (/.  e..  on  an  average,  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
their  proper  proportional  weight),  as  well  as  their  slightly  lessened 


Chap.  VIII.     EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND   DISUSE. 


295 


length,  relatively  to  the  leg-bones,  might  follow,  not  from  any 
actual  decrease  in  the  wing-bones,  but  from  tlie  increased  weight 
and  length  of  the  bones  of  the  legs.  The  first  of  the  two  taljlcs  on 
the  next  page  shows  that  the  leg-bones  relatively  to  tiie  weiglit  of 
the  entire  skeleton  have  really  increased  in  weight;  but  the  second 
table  shows  that  according  to  the  same  standard  the  \\ing-b()iu'!i 
have  also  really  decreased  in  weight;  so  that  llie  rchitive  dis- 
proportion shown  in  the  foregoing  tables  between  the  wing  and  leg- 
bones,  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  wild  duck,  is  partly  due  to 
the  increase  in  w^eight  and  length  of  the  leg-bones,  and  partly  to 
the  decrease  in  weight  and  length  of  the  wing-bones. 

With  respect  to  the  two  following  tables,  I  may  first  state  that 
I  tested  them  by  taking  another  skeleton  of  a  wild  duck  and  of  a 


Name  of  Breed. 

Weight  of  entire 
Skeleton. 
(N.B.     One  Metatar- 
sus   and    Foot    was 
removed  from  each 
skeleton,  as    it  had 
been  accidentally  lost 
in  two  cases.) 

Weight  of    ' 

Femur, 
Tibia,  and 
Metatarsus. 

Or  as 

Wild  mallard 

Aylesbury 

Tufted  (Dutch) 

Penguin  

Call  (from  Mr.  Fox)     .     .     . 

Grains. 

839 
1925 
1404 

871 

717 

Grains. 

54 

164 

111 

75 

57 

1000  :  &4 

1000  :  85 
1000  :  79 
1000  :  86 
1000  :  79 

Weight  of  Skeleton 
as  above. 

Weight  of 

Humerus, 

Radius,  and 

Metacarpus. 

Wild  mallard 

Aylesbury 

Tufted  (Dutch) 

Penguin  

Call  (from  Mr.  Baker)  .     .     . 
Call  (from  Mr.  Fox)      .     .     . 

Grains. 

839 
1925 
1404 

871 

914 

717 

Grains. 

97 
204 
148 

90 
100 

92 

1000  :  115 
1000  :  105 
1000  :  105 
1000  :  103 
1000  :  109 
1000  :  129 

common  domestic  duck,  and  by  comparing  the  weight  of  all  the 

bones  of  the  leg  with  all  those  of  the  wings,  and  the  result  was  the 

same.     In  the  first  of  these  tables  we  see  that  the  leg-bones  in  each 

case  have   increased   in   actual    weight.     It   might   have   been   ex- 

I   pected  that,  with  the  increased  or  decreased  Meight  of  the  entire 

!   skeleton,  the  leg-bones  would  have  become  proportionally  heavier 

or  lighter;  but  their  greater  weight  in  all  the  breeds  relatively  to 

[   the  other  bones  can  be  accounted  for  only  by  these  donu^stic  birds 

I   having  used  their  legs  in  walking  and  standing  much  more  than 

the  wild,  for  they  never  fly,  andthe  more  artificial  breeds  rarely 


296  DOMESTIC  DUCKS.  Chap.  VIII. 

swim.  In  the  second  table  we  see,  with  the  exception  of  one  case, 
a  plain  reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  bones  of  the  wing,  and  this 
no  doubt  has  resulted  from  their  lessened  use.  The  one  excep- 
tional case,  namely,  in  one  of  the  Call  ducks,  is  in  truth  no  ex- 
ception, for  this  bird  was  constantly  in  the  habit  of  flying  about; 
and  I  have  seen  it  day  after  day  rise  from  my  grounds,  and  fly 
for  a  long  time  in  circles  of  more  than  a  mile  in  diameter.  In  this 
Call  duck  there  is  not  only  no  decrease,  but  an  actual  increase  in 
the  weight  of  the  wing-bones  relatively  to  those  of  the  wild  duck; 
and  this  probably  is  consequent  on  the  remarkable  lightness  and 
thinness  of  all  the  bones  of  the  skeleton. 

Lastly,  I  weighed  the  furculum,  coracoids,  and  scapula  of  a 
wild  duck  and  of  a  common  domestic  duck,  and  I  found  that  their 
weight,  relatively  to  that  of  the  whole  skeleton,  was  as  one  hun- 
dred in  the  former  to  eighty-nine  in  the  latter;  this  shows  that 
these  bones  in  the  domestic  duck  have  been  reduced  eleven  per 
cent,  of  their  due  proportional  weight.  The  prominence  of  the 
crest  of  the  sternum,  relatively  to  its  length,  is  also  much  reduced 
in  all  the  domestic  breeds.  These  changes  have  evidently  been 
caused  bv  the  lessened  use  of  the  wings. 

It  is  well  known  that  several  birds,  belonging  to  different 
Orders,  and  inhabiting  oceanic  islands,  have  their  wings 
greatly  reduced  in  size  and  are  incapable  of  flight.  I  sug- 
gested in  my  '  Origin  of  Species  '  that,  as  these  birds  are  not 
persecuted  by  any  enemies,  the  reduction  of  their  wings  had 
probably  been  caused  by  gradual  disuse.  Hence,  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  process  of  reduction,  such  birds  would 
probably  have  resembled  our  domesticated  ducks  in  the  state 
of  their  organs  of  flight.  This  is  the  case  with  the  water- 
hen  (Gallinula  nesiotis)  of  Tristan  d'Acunha,  which  "can 
flutter  a  little,  but  obviously  uses  its  legs,  and  not  its  wings, 
as  a  mode  of  escape."  ISTow  Mr.  Sclater  ^^  finds  in  this  bird 
that  the  wings,  sternum,  and  coracoids  are  all  reduced  in 
length,  and  the  crest  of  the  sternum  in  depth,  in  comparison 
with  the  same  bones  in  the  European  water-hen  (G. 
chloropus).  On  the  other  hand,  the  thigh-bones  and  pelvis 
are  increased  in  length,  the  former  by  four  lines,  relatively  to 
the  same  bones  in  the  common  water-hen.  Hence  in  the 
skeleton  of  this  natural  species  nearly  the  same  changes  have 
occurred,  only  carried  a  little  further,  as  with  our  domestic 
ducks,  and  in  this  latter  case  I  presume  no  one  will  dispute 
that  they  have  resulted  from  the  lessened  use  of  the  wings 
and  the  increased  use  of  the  legs. 

19  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.,'  1861,  p.  261. 


Chap.  VIII. 


DOMESTIC  GOOSE. 


297 


The  Goose. 

This  bird  deserves  some  notice,  as  hardly  any  other  an- 
ciently domesticated  bird  or  quadruped  has  varied  so  little 
That  geese  were  anciently  domesticated  we  know  from  ctTtain 
verses  in  Homer;  and  from  these  birds  having  been  kept 
(388  B.C.)  in  the  Capitol  at  Rome  as  sacred  to  Juno,  which 
sacredness  implies  great  antiquity.""  That  the  goose  has 
varied  in  some  degree,  we  may  infer  from  naturalists  not 
being  unanimous  with  respect  to  its  wild  parent-form; 
though  the  difficulty  is  chiefly  due  to  the  existence  of  three 
or  four  closely  allied  wild  European  species.'^  A  largo 
majority  of  capable  judges  are  convinced  that  our  geese  are 
descended  from  the  wild  Grey-leg  goose  {A.  ferus) ;  the 
young  of  which  can  easily  be  tamed.''  This  species,  when 
crossed  with  the  domestic  goose,  produced  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  as  I  was  assured  in  1849,  perfectly  fertile  offsi)ring.^ 
Yarreir^  has  observed  that  the  lower  part  of  the  trachea  of 
the  domestic  goose  is  sometimes  flattened,  and  that  a  ring 
of  white  feathers  sometimes  surrounds  the  base  of  the  beak. 
These  characters  seem  at  first  sight  good  indications  of  a 
crogfe  at  some  former  period  with  the  white-fronted  goose 
(A.  albifrons)  ;  but  the  white  ring  is  variable  in  this  latter 
species,  and  we  must  not  overlook  the  law  of  analogous  varia- 
tion; that  is,  of  one  species  assuming  some  of  the  characters 
of  allied  species. 

As  the  goose  has  proved  so  little  flexible  in  its  organiza- 
tion under  long-continued  domestication,  the  amount  of 
variation  which  it  has  undergone  may  be  worth  giving.  It 
has   increased   in   size   and   in   productiveness ; ''   and   varies 


20  '  Cevlon.'  by  Sir  J.  E.  Ten- 
nent,  IS.jO,  vol.  i.  p.  4S5;  also  J. 
Crawfurd  on  the  '  Relation  of 
Doniest.  Ainmals  to  Civilisation.' 
read  before  Brit.  Assoo.,  lS(iO. 
See  also  '  Ornamontal  Poiiltry,'  by 
Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon.  1S4S.  p.  132. 
The  goose  fiunred  on  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments  seems  to  have 
been  the  Red  goose  of  Egyi)t. 

21  Macgillivray's  '  British  Birds,' 
vol.   iv.   p.   593. 

--  Mr.  A.  Rtriekland  ('  Annals 
and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  3rd  se- 
ries, voi.  iii.,  1S59,  p.  122)   reared 


some  young  wild  geese,  and  found 
them  in  hal)its  and  in  all  charae- 
ters  identical  with  the  domestic 
goose. 

23  See  also  Hunter's  '  Essays/ 
edited  bv  Owen.  vol.  11.  \^.  322. 

2*  Yarrelfs  '  I'.ritish  R.inls."  vol. 
iii.  p.  142. 

2''  L.  Lloyd.  '  SeandiJiavian  Ad- 
ventures.' *1S.")4.  vol.  ii.  i>.  413. 
says  that  the  wild  goose  lays 
from  five  to  eight  eggs,  wiilch  is 
a  much  fewer  number  th.in  that 
laid  by  our  domestic  goose. 


298  DOMESTIC   GOOSE.  Chap.  VIII. 

from  white  to  a  dusky  colour.  Several  observers '"  have 
stated  that  the  gander  is  more  frequently  white  than  the 
goose,  and  that  when  old  it  almost  invariably  becomes  white; 
but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  parent-form,  the  A.  ferus. 
Here,  again,  the  law  of  analogous  variation  may  have  come 
into  play,  as  the  almost  snow-white  male  of  the  Rock  goose 
{Bernicla  antarctica)  standing  on  the  sea-shore  by  his  dusky 
partner  is  a  sight  well  known  to  those  who  have  traversed 
the  sounds  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  Falkland  Islands. 
Some  geese  have  top-knots;  and  the  skull  beneath,  as  before 
stated,  is  perforated,  A  sub-breed  has  lately  been  formed 
with  the  feathers  reversed  at  the  back  of  the  head  and  neck.^^ 
The  beak  varies  a  little  in  size,  and  is  of  a  yellower  tint  than 
in  the  wild  species;  but  its  colour  and  that  of  the  legs  are 
both  slightly  variable.'*  This  latter  fact  deserves  attention, 
because  the  colour  of  the  legs  and  beak  is  highly  serviceable 
in  discriminating  the  several  closely  allied  wild  forms.'"* 
At  our  Shows  two  breeds  are  exhibited;  viz.  the  Em.bden  and 
Toulouse;  but  they  differ  in  nothing  except  colour.^"  Re- 
cently a  smaller  and  singular  variety  has  been  imported  from 
Sebastopol,^^  with  the  scapular  feathers  (as  I  hear  from 
Mr.  Tegetmeier,  who  sent  me  specimens)  greatly  elongated, 
curled,  and  even  spirally  twisted.  The  margins  of  these 
feathers  are  rendered  plumose  by  the  divergence  of  the  barbs 
and  barbules,  so  that  they  resemble  in  some  degree  those  on 
the  back  of  the  black  Australian  swan.  These  feathers  are 
likewise  remarkable  from  the  central  shaft,  which  is  excessive- 
ly thin  and  transparent,  being  split  into  fine  filaments,  which, 
after  running  for  a  space  free,  sometimes  coalesce  again.  It 
is  a  curious  fact  that  these  filaments  are  regularly  clothed  on 
each  side  with  fine  down  or  barbules,  precisely  like  those  on 
the   proper    barbs    of    the    feather.     This    structure    of    the 

26  The    Rev.    L.    Jenyns    seems  of   Ireland,'    1851,    vol.    iii.    p.    31. 

first   to   have  made  this   observa-  The   Rev.    E.    S.    Dixon   gave   me 

tion     in     his     '  British     Animals.'  some  information  on  the  varying' 

See    also    Yarrell.    and    Dixon    in  colonr  of  the  beak  and  legs. 
his      '  Ornamental      Ponltrv  '      (p.  -'-'  ^Nlr.    A.     Strickland,    in    '  An- 

139),   and  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  nals  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  3rd 

1857,  p.  45.  series,  vol.  iii.,  1850.  p.   122. 

2T  Mr.     Bartlet     exhibited     the  ^"^  '  Poultry    Chronicle.'    vol.    i., 

head    and    neck    of    a    l>ii-d    thus  1854.  p.  498;  vol.  iii.  p.  210. 
characterised   before  the  Zoologi-  ^^  '  The       Cottage       Gardener,' 

cal  Soc.  Fel).,  18(10.  Sept.  4th,  1860,  p.  348. 

28 W.  Thompson,  'Natural  Hist. 


Chap.  VIII.  PEACOCK. 


290 


feathers  is  transmitted  to  half-bred  birds.  In  Gallus  son- 
neratii  the  barbs  and  barbules  blend  together,  and  form  thin 
horny  plates  of  the  same  nature  with  the  shaft:  in  this 
variety  of  the  goose,  the  shaft  divides  into  filaments  which 
acquire  barbules,  and  thus  resemble  true  barbs. 

Although  the  domestic  goose  certainly  differs  somewhat 
from  any  wild  species,  yet  the  amount  of  variation  which  it 
has  undergone,  as  compared  with  that  of  most  domesticated 
animals,  is  singularly  small.  This  fact  can  be  partially  ac- 
counted for  by  selection  not  having  come  largely  into  play. 
Birds  of,  all  kinds  which  present  many  distinct  races  are 
valued  as  pets  or  ornaments;  no  one  makes  a  pet  of  the 
goose;  the  name,  indeed,  in  more  languages  than  one,  is  a 
term  of  reproach.  The  goose  is  valued  for  its  size  and 
flavour,  for  the  whiteness  of  its  feathers  which  adds  to  their 
value,  and  for  its  prolificness  and  tameness.  In  all  these 
points  the  goose  differs  from  the  wild  parent-form ;  and  these 
are  the  points  which  have  been  selected.  Even  in  ancient 
times  the  Roman  gourmands  valued  the  liver  of  the  white 
goose ;  and  Pierre  Belon  ^'  in  1555  speaks  of  two  varieties, 
one  of  which  was  larger,  more  fecund,  and  of  a  better  colour 
than  the  other;  and  he  expressly  states  that  good  managers 
attended  to  the  colour  of  their  goslings,  so  that  they  might 
know  w^hich  to  preserve  and  select  for  breeding. 

The  Peacock. 

This  is  another  bird  which  has  hardly  varied  under  do- 
mestication, except  in  sometimes  being  white  or  piebald. 
Mr.  Waterhouse  carefully  compared,  as  he  informs  me,  skins 
of  the  wild  Indian  and  domestic  bird,  and  they  were  identical 
in  every  respect,  except  that  the  plumage  of  the  latter  was 
perhaps  rather  thicker.  Whether  our  birds  are  descended 
from  those  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  time  of  Alexander, 
or  have  been  subsequently  imported,  is  doubtful.  They 
do  not  breed  very  freely  with  us,  and  are  seldom  kept  in  large 
numbers, — circumstances  which  would  greatly  interfere  with 
the  gradual  selection  and  formation  of  new  breeds. 

32  '  L'Hist.     de    la    Nature    des  the    Romans,    ftcc    Isid.    GeofTrojr 

Oiseaux.'    par   P.    Belon.    1555,    p.  St.-Hilaire,     'Hist.     Nat.     GiMi., 

156.      With   respect   to   the   livers  torn.  iii.  p.  58. 
of  white  geese  being  preferred  by 


^00  PEACOCK.  Chap.  VIII. 

There  is  one  strange  fact  with  respect  to  the  peacock, 
namely,  the  occasional  appearance  in  England  of  the  "  ja- 
panned "  or  "  black-shouldered  "  kind.  This  form  has  lately- 
been  named  on  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Sclater  as  a  dis- 
tinct species,  viz.,  Pavo  nigripennis,  which  he  believes  will 
hereafter  be  found  wild  in  some  country,  but  not  in  India, 
w^here  it  is  certainly  unknown.  The  males  of  these  japanned 
birds  differ  conspicuously  from  the  common  peacock  in  the 
•colour  of  their  secondary  wing-feathers,  scapulars,  wing- 
coverts,  and  thighs,  and  are  I  think  more  beautiful;  they 
are  rather  smaller  than  the  common  sort,  and  are  always 
beaten  by  them  in  their  battles,  as  I  hear  from  the  Hon. 
A.  S.  G.  Canning.  The  females  are  much  paler  coloured 
than  those  of  the  common  kind.  Both  sexes,  as  Mr.  Canning 
informs  me,  are  white  when  they  leave  the  egg,  and  they 
differ  from  the  young  of  the  white  variety  only  in  having  a 
peculiar  pinkish  tinge  on  their  wings.  These  japanned  birds, 
though  appearing  suddenly  in  flocks  of  the  common  kind, 
propagate  their  kind  quite  truly.  Although  they  do  not  re- 
semble the  hybrids  which  have  been  raised  between  P.  crista- 
tus  and  miiticus,  nevertheless  they  are  in  some  respects  inter- 
mediate in  character  between  these  two  species;  and  this  fact 
favours,  as  Mr.  Sclater  believes,  the  view  that  they  form  a 
distinct  and  natural  species.^^ 

On  the  other  hand,  Sir  R.  Heron  states  ^*  that  this  breed 
suddenly  appeared  within  his  memory  in  Lord  Brownlow's 
large  stock  of  pied,  white,  and  common  peacocks.  The  same 
thing  occurred  in  Sir  J.  Trevelyan's  flock  composed  entirely 
•of  the  common  kind,  and  in  Mr.  Thornton's  stock  of  common 
and  pied  peacocks.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  these  two  latter 
instances  the  black-shouldered  kind,  though  a  smaller  and 
weaker  bird,  increased,  "  to  the  extinction  of  the  previously 
-existing  breed."  I  have  also  received  through  Mr.  Sclater  a 
statement  from  Mr.  Hudson  Gurney  that  he  reared  many 
years  ago  a  pair  of  black-shouldered  peacocks  from  the  com- 
mon kind ;  and  another  ornithologist.  Prof.  A.  ISTewton,  states, 

'3  Mr.     Sclater    on    the    black-  wild  in  Cochin  China,  but  he  has 

shouldered    peacock    of    Latham,  since   informed   me  that   he   feels 

'  Proc.    Zoolog.    Soc.,'    April   24th.  very  doubtful  on  this  head. 
ISfiO.      Mr.    Swinhoe   at   one   time  ^^  '  Proc.     Zoolog.     Soc.,'    April 

Tjelieved   ('  Ibis,'   July,    1868)   that  14th,  1835. 
i:his   kind  of  peafowl   was   found 


Chap.  VIII.  PEACOCK.  301 

that,  five  or  six  years  ago,  a  female  bird,  in  all  respects  simi- 
lar to  the  female  of  the  black-shoultlered  kind,  was  pro- 
duced from  a  stock  of  common  peacocks  in  his  possession, 
which  during  more  than  twenty  years  had  not  been  crossed 
with  birds  of  any  other  strain.  ^Ir.  Jenner  Weir  informs 
me  that  a  peacock  at  Blackheath  whilst  youn^'  was  wliite, 
but  as  it  became  older  gradually  assumed  the  cliaracters  of 
the  black-shouldered  variety;  both  its  parents  were  common 
peacocks.  Lastly,  Mr.  Canning  has  given  a  case  of  a  female 
of  this'  same  variety  appearing  in  Ireland  in  a  flock  of  tlie 
ordinary  kind.^^  Here,  then,  we  have  seven  well  authenti- 
cated cases  in  Great  Britain  of  japanned  birds,  having  sud- 
denly appeared  within  recent  times  in  flocks  of  the  common 
pea-fowl.  This  variety  must  also  have  formerly  appeared 
in  Europe,  for  Mr.  Canning  has  seen  an  old  picture,  and 
another  is  referred  to  in  the  '  Field,'  with  this  variety  repre- 
sented. These  facts  seem  to  me  to  indicate  that  the  japanned 
peacock  is  a  strongly  marked  variety  or  "sport,"  which 
tends  at  all  times  and  in  many  places  to  reappear.  This  view 
is  supported  by  the  young  being  at  first  white  like  the  young 
of  the  white  breed,  wdiich  is  undoubtedly  a  variation.  If,  on 
the"  other  hand,  we  believe  the  japanned  peacock- to  be  a  dis- 
tinct species,  we  must  suppose  that  in  all  the  above  cases  the 
common  breed  had  at  some  former  period  been  crossed  by 
it,  but  had  lost  every  trace  of  the  cross;  yet  that  the  offspring 
of  these  birds  suddenly  and  completely  reacquired  through 
reversion  the  characters  of  P.  nigripennis.  I  have  heard  of 
no  other  such  case  in  the  animal  or  vegetable  kingdom.  To 
perceive  the  full  improbability  of  such  an  occurrence,  we  may 
suppose  that  a  breed  of  dogs  had  been  crossed  at  some  former 
period  with  a  wolf,  but  had  lost  every  trace  of  the  wolf-like 
character,  yet  that  the  breed  gave  birth  in  seven  instances  in 
the  same  country,  within  no  great  length  of  time,  to  a  wolf 
perfect  in  every  character;  and  we  must  further  suppose  that 
in  two  of  the  cases,  the  newly  produced  wolves  afterwards 
spontaneously  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  lead  to  the 
extinction  of  the  parent  breed  of  dogs.  So  remarkable  a 
bird  as  the  P.  nigripennis,  when  first  imported,  would  have 

"  '  The   Field  '   Mav  6th.   ISTl.        nine  for  inforniiitiou  with  respect 
I  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Can-       to  his  birds. 


302 


TURKEY. 


Chap.  VIII. 


realized  a  larg-e  price ;  it  is  therefore  improbable  that  it  should 
have  been  silently  introduced  and  its  history  subsequently 
lost.  On  the  whole  the  evidence  seems  to  me,  as  it  did  to  Sir 
E.  Heron,  to  be  decisive  in  favour  of  the  japanned  or  black- 
shouldered  breed  being  a  variation,  induced  by  some  un- 
known cause.  On  this  view,  the  case  is  the  most  remarkable 
one  ever  recorded  of  the  abrupt  appearance  of  a  new  form, 
w^hich  so  closely  resembles  a  true  species  that  it  has  deceived 
one  of  the  most  experienced  of  living  ornithologists. 


The  Turkey. 

It  seems  fairly  well  established  by  Mr.  Gould,^"  that  the 
turkey,  in  accordance  with  the  history  of  its  first  introduc- 
tion, is  descended  from  a  wild  Mexican  form,  which  had 
been  domesticated  by  the  natives  before  the  discovery  of 
America,  and  w^hich  is  now  generally  ranked  as  a  local  race, 
and  not  as  a  distinct  species.  However  this  may  be,  the 
case  deserves  notice,  because  in  the  United  States  wild  male 
turkeys  sometimes  court  the  domestic  hens,  which  are  de- 
scended from  the  Mexican  form,  "  and  are  generally  received 
by  them  with  great  pleasure."  ^'  Several  accounts  have  like- 
wise been  published  of  young  birds,  reared  in  the  United 
States  from  the  eggs  of  the  wild  species,  crossing  and  com- 
mingling with  the  common  breed.  In  England,  also,  this 
same  species  has  been  kept  in  several  parks;  and  from  two  of 
which  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Fox  procured  birds,  and  they  crossed 
freely  with  the  common  domestic  kind,  and  during  many 
years  afterwards,  as  he  informs  me,  the  turkeys  in  his  neigh- 
bourhood clearly  showed  traces  of  their  crossed  parentage. 
We  here  have  an  instance  of  a  domestic  race  being  modified 
by  a  cross  with  a  distinct  wild  race  or  species.  F.  Michaux  ^ 
suspected  in  1802  that  the  common  domestic  turkey  was  not 


3s  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc'  April 
8tli,  1856,  p.  Gl.  Prof  Baird  be- 
lieves (as  quoted  in  Tegetiiieier's 
•  Poultry  Book.'  1866.  p.  2B9)  that 
our  turkeys  are  descended  from 
a  V/est  Indian  species  now  ex- 
tinct. But  besides  the  improba- 
bility of  a  bird  havinjr  Inns  airo 
become  extinct  in  these  large  and 
luxuriant  islands,  it  appears  (as 
we  shall  presently  see)   that  the 


turkey  degenerates  in  India,  and 
this  fact  indicates  that  it  was  not 
aboriginally  an  inhabitant  of  the 
lowlands  of  the  tropics. 

3"  Audubon's  '  Ornithological 
Biography,'  vol.  i.,  1881,  pp.  4-13; 
and  •  Naturalist's  Library,'  vol. 
xiv..  Birds,  p.  1.38. 

3s  F.  Michaux,  '  Travels  in  N. 
America,'  1802,  Eng.  translat.,  p. 
217. 


Chap.  VIII.  TURKEY. 


303 


descended  from  the  United  States  species  alone,  but  likewise 
from  a  southern  form,  and  he  went  so  far  as  to  believe  that 
English  and  French  turkeys  differed  from  having  different 
proportions  of  the  blood  of  the  two  parent-forms. 

English  turkeys  are  smaller  than  either  wild  form.  They 
have  not  varied  in  any  great  degree;  but  there  are  some 
breeds  which  can  be  distinguished— as  Norfolks,  Sutfdks, 
Whites,  and  Copper-coloured  (or  Cambridge),  all  of  which, 
if  precluded  from  crossing  with  other  breeds  propagate  their 
kind  truly.  Of  these  kinds,  the  most  distinct  is  the  small, 
hardy,  dull-black  K'orfolk  turkey,  of  which  the  chickens  are 
black,  occasionally  with  white  patches  about  the  head.  The 
other  breeds  scarcely  differ  except  in  colour,  and  their  chick- 
ens are  generally  mottled  all  over  wdth  brownish-grey."  The 
inferior  tail-coverts  vary  in  number,  and  according  to  a 
German  superstition  the  hen  lays  as  many  eggs  as  the  cock 
has  feathers  of  this  kind.*"  Albin  in  1738,  and  Temminck 
within  a  much  later  period,  describe  a  beautiful  breed,  dusky- 
yellowdsh,  brown  above  and  white  beneath,  with  a  large  top- 
knot of  soft  plumose  feather.  The  spurs  of  the  male  were 
rudimentary.  This  breed  has  been  for  a  long  time  extinct  in 
Europe;  but  a  living  specimen  has  lately  been  imported  from 
the  east  coast  of  Africa,  which  still  retains  the  top-knot  and 
the  same  general  colouring  and  rudimentary  spurs."  .Mr. 
Wilmot  has  described*"  a  white  turkey-cock  having  a  crest 
formed  of  "  feathers  about  four  inches  long,  with  bare  quills, 
and  a  tuft  of  soft  white  down  growing  at  the  end."  J\Iany 
of  the  young  birds  inherited  this  kind  of  crest,  but  afterwards 
it  fell  off  or  was  pecked  out  by  the  other  birds.  This  is  an 
interesting  case,  as  with  care  a  new  breed  might  probably 
have  been  formed;  and  a  top-knot  of  this  nature  would  have 
been  to  a  certain  extent  analogous  to  that  borne  by  the  males 
in  several  allied  genera,  such  as  Euplocomus,  Lophophorus, 
&nd  Pavo. 

Wild  turkeys,  believed  in  every  instance  to  have  been  im- 
ported from  the  United  States,  have  been  kept  in  the  parks 

S9  '  Ornament.ll      Poultry,'      by  Water.'  Oct.  .SI.  1808.  p.  S:?.*^:  and 

the  Rev.  E.   S.   Dixon,  1848,  p.  34.  Mr.    Tejrctnioier    in    tlie    '  IMeld, 

«' Beohstein,    '  Naturg.  Dentsch-  July  IT.  1S()!>.  p.  4<i.  .  .  .-o 

lands,'  B.  iii.  170.3,  s.  300.  *-  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,    IboJ, 

"  Mr.    Bartlett    in    '  Land    and  p.  G9i). 


304  GUINEA  FOWL.  Chap.  VIII. 

of  Lords  Powis,  Leicester,  Hill,  and  Derby.  The  Rev.  W. 
D.  Fox  procured  birds  from  the  two  first-named  parks,  and 
he  informs  me  that  they  certainly  differed  a  little  from 
each  other  in  the  shape  of  their  bodies  and  in  the  barred 
plumage  on  their  wings.  These  birds  likewise  differed  from 
Lord  Hill's  stock.  Some  of  the  latter  kept  at  Oulton  by 
Sir  P.  Egerton,  though  precluded  from  crossing  with  com- 
mon turkeys,  occasionally  produced  much  paler-coloured 
birds,  and  one  that  was  almost  white,  but  not  an  albino. 
These  half-wild  turkeys,  in  thus  differing  slightly  from  each 
other,  present  an  analogous  case  with  the  wild  cattle  kept  in 
the  several  British  parks.  We  must  suppose  that  such  dif- 
ferences have  resulted  from  the  prevention  of  free  inter- 
crossing between  birds  ranging  over  a  wide  area,  and  from  the 
changed  conditions  to  which  they  have  been  exposed  in 
England.  In  India  the  climate  has  apparently  wrought  a 
still  greater  change  in  the  turkey,  for  it  is  described  by  Mr. 
Plyth "  as  being  much  degenerated  in  size,  "  utterly  in- 
capable of  rising  on  the  wing,"  of  a  black  colour,  and  "  with 
the  long  pendulous  appendages  over  the  beak  enormously  de- 
veloped." 

The  Guinea  Fowl. 

The  domesticated  Guinea  fowl  is  now  believed  by  some 
naturalists  to  be  descended  from  the  Numida  ptilorhynca^ 
which  inhabits  very  hot,  and,  in  parts,  extremely  arid  dis- 
tricts in  Eastern  Africa ;  consequently  it  has  been  exposed 
in  this  country  to  extremely  different  conditions  of  life. 
J^evertheless  it  has  hardly  varied  at  all,  except  in  the  plumage 
being  either  paler  or  darker-coloured.  It  is  a  singular  fact 
that  this  bird  varies  more  in  colour  in  the  West  Indies  and 
on  the  Spanish  Main,  under  a  hot  though  humid  climate, 
than  in  Europe."  The  Guinea  fowl  has  become  thoroughly 
feral  in  Jamaica  and  in  St.  Domingo,*^  and  has  diminished  in 

43    E.  Blyth,  '  Annals  and  Mag.  Jamaica.      I    have    seen    singular 

of  Nat.  Hist.,'  1847.  vol.  XX.  p.  301.  pale-coloured    varieties    imported 

**  Roulin  makes  this  remark  in  from   Barliadoes  and  Demerara. 
'  Mem.   de  divers   Savans,   I'Acad.  ^^  For   St.    Domingo,   see  M.    A. 

des    Sciences,'    torn,    vi.,    1835,    p.  Salle,  in  '  Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc'  1857. 

239.     Mr.   Hill,  of  Spanish  Town,  p.  236.     Mr.   Hill  remarks  to  me, 

in   a   letter   to   me,    descriljes   Ave  in  his  letter,  on  the  colour  of  the 

varieties   of   the   Guinea   fowl   in  legs  of  the  feral  birds  in  Jamaica. 


Chap.  VIII.  CANARY  BIRD. 


305 


size;  the  legs  are  black,  whereas  the  legs  of  the  aboriginal 
African  bird  are  said  to  be  grey.  This  small  change  is  worth 
notice  on  account  of  the  often-repeated  statement  that  all 
feral  animals  invariably  revert  in  every  character  to  their 
original  type. 

The  Canary  Bird. 

^  As  this  'bird  has  been  recently  domesticated,  namely, 
within  the  last  350  years,  its  variability  deserves  notice.  It 
has  been  crossed  with  nine  or  ten  other  species  of  Fringillidic, 
and  some  of  the  hybrids  are  almost  completely  fertile;  but 
we  have  no  evidence  that  any  distinct  breed  has  originated 
from  such  crosses.  Notwithstanding  the  modern  domestica- 
tion of  the  canary,  many  varieties  have  been  produced ;  even 
before  the  year  1718  a  list  of  twenty-seven  varieties  was 
published  in  France,"'  and  in  1779  a  long  schedule  of  the 
desired  qualities  was  printed  by  the  London  Canary  Society, 
so  that  methodical  selection  has  been  practised  during  a 
considerable  period.  The  greater  number  of  the  varieties 
differ  only  in  colour  and  in  the  markings  of  their  plumage. 
Some  breeds,  however,  differ  in  shape,  such  as  the  hooped  or 
bowed  canaries,  and  the  Belgian  canaries  with  their  much 
elongated  bodies.  Mr.  Brent  *^  measured  one  of  the  latter 
and  found  it  eight  inches  in  length,  whilst  the  wild  canary 
is  only  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long.  There  are  top-knotted 
canaries,  and  it  is  a  singular  fact  that,  if  two  top-knotted 
birds  are  matched,  the  young,  instead  of  having  very  fine  top- 
knots, are  generally  bald,  or  even  have  a  wound  on  their 
heads.*^  It  would  appear  as  if  the  top-knot  were  due  to 
some  morbid  condition,  which  is  increased  to  an  injurious 
degree  when  two  birds  in  this  state  are  paired.  There  is  a 
feather-footed  breed,  and  another  with  a  kind  of  frill  run- 
ning down  the  breast.  One  other  character  deserves  notice 
from  being  confined  to  one  period  of  life,  and  from  being- 

«  Mr.    B.    P.    Brent,    '  The    Ca-  Harcourt,    ibid.,    Doc.    2.'.th,    1855, 

nary.    British    Finches,'    &c.,    pp.  p.  228. 

21,  ?,0.  ^'^  Bechstein,    '  XaturKosch.   tier 

*^  '  Cottage      Gardener,'      Dec.  Stnbenvojrel.'   1.S40.    s.   24:i;   see  s. 

11th,   1855,   p.   184:   an  account   is  252,  on  the  inheritc*!  song  of  Cn- 

here    given    of   all    the    varieties.  nary-blrds.    With  respect  to  thrlr 

For   many    measurements    of    the  baldness,     sec     also     W.      Kldds 

wild    birds,    see    Mr.     E.     Veruon  '  Treatise  on  Song -Birds.' 


20Q  GOLD-FISH.  Chap.  VIII. 

strictly  inherited  at  the  same  period;  namely,  the  wing  and 
tail  feathers  in  prize  canaries  being  black,  "  but  this  colour 
is  retained  only  until  the  first  moult;  once  moulted,  the 
peculiarity  ceases."  *^  Canaries  differ  much  in  disposition 
and  character,  and  in  some  small  degree  in  song.  They 
produce  eggs  three  or  four  times  during  the  year. 

GOLD-FlSH. 

Besides  mammals  and  birds,  only  a  few  animals  belong- 
ing to  the  other  great  classes  have  been  domesticated;  but 
to  show  that  it  is  an  almost  universal  law  that  animals,  when 
removed  from  their  natural  conditions  of  life,  vary,  and  that 
races  can  be  formed  when  selection  is  applied,  it  is  necessary 
to  say  a  few  words  on  gold-fish,  bees,  and  silk-moths. 

Gold-fish  (Cyprinus  auratus)  were  introduced  into  Eu- 
rope only  two  or  three  centuries  ago ;  but  they  have  been  kept 
in  confinement  from  an  ancient  period  in  China.  Mr. 
Blyth'"  suspects,  from  analogous  variation  of  other  fishes, 
that  golden-coloured  fish  do  not  occur  in  a  state  of  nature. 
These  fishes  frequently  live  under  the  most  unnatural  con- 
ditions, and  their  variability  in  colour,  size,  and  in  some 
important  points  of  structure  is  very  great.  M.  Sauvigny 
has  described  and  given  coloured  drawings  of  no  less  than 
eighty-nine  varieties."  Many  of  the  varieties,  however,  such 
as  triple  tail-fins,  &c.,  ought  to  be  called  monstrosities;  but 
it  is  difficult  to  draw  any  distinct  line  between  a  variation 
and  a  monstrosity.  As  gold-fish  are  kept  for  ornament  or 
curiosity,  and  as  "  the  Chinese  are  just  the  people  to  have  se- 
•cluded  a  chance  variety  of  any  kind,  and  to  have  matched  and 
paired  from  it,"  "  it  might  have  been  predicted  that  selection 
w^ould  have  been  largely  practised  in  the  formation  of  new 
breeds;  and  this  is  the  case.  In  an  old  Chinese  work  it  is 
said  that  fish  with  vermilion  scales  were  first  raised  in  con- 
finement during  the  Sung  dynasty  (which  commenced  a.d. 
960),  "and  now  they  are  cultivated  in  families  everywhere 
for  the  sake  of  ornament."     In  another   and  more   ancient 

«W.  Kifld's  'Treatise  on  Song-  ^i  Yarrell's     'British     Fishes,' 

Birds  '  D    18  vol.  i.  p.  319. 

soTiie' Indian  Field,'   1858,   p.  "Mr.     Rlyth.     in    the    'Indian 

255.  Field,'  1S58,  p.  255. 


Chap.  VIII.  HIVE-BEES.  3O7 

work,  it  is  said  that  "there  is  not  a  household  where  the 
gold-fish  is  not  cultivated,  in  rivalry  as  to  its  colour,  and  as 
a  source  of  profit,"  &c.''  Although  many  breeds  exist,  it 
is  a  singular  fact  that  the  variations  are  often  not  inherited. 
Sir  K.  Heron  '*  kept  many  of  these  fishes,  and  placed  all  the 
deformed  ones,  namely,  those  destitute  of  dorsal  fins  and 
those  furnished  with  a  double  anal  fin,  or  triple  tail,  in  a 
pond  by  themselves ;  but  they  did  "  not  produce  a  greater 
proportion  of  deformed  offspring  than  the  perfect  fishes." 

Passing  over  an  almost  infinite  diversity  of  colour,  we 
meet  with  the  most  extraordinary  modifications  of  structure. 
Thus,  out  of  about  two  dozen  specimens  bought  in  London, 
Mr.  Yarrell  observed  some  with  the  dorsal  fin  extending  along 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  back:  others  with  this  fin 
reduced  to  only  five  or  six  rays :  and  one  with  no  dorsal  fin. 
The  anal  fins  are  sometimes  double,  and  the  tail  is  often 
triple.  This  latter  deviation  of  structure  seems  generally  to 
occur  "  at  the  expense  of  the  whole  or  part  of  some  other 
fin ;  "  "  but  Bory  de  Saint-Vincent  ^^  saw  at  Madrid  gold- 
fish furnished  with  a  dorsal  fin  and  a  triple  tail.  One 
variety  is  characterised  by  a  hump  on  its  back  near  the 
head ;  and  the  Rev.  L.  Jenyns  "  has  described  a  most  singular 
variety,  imported  from  China,  almost  globular  in  form  like 
a  Diodon,  with  "  the  fleshy  part  of  the  tail  as  if  entirely  cut 
away;  the  caudal  fin  being  set  on  a  little  behind  the  dorsal 
and  immediately  above  the  anal."  In  this  fish  the  anal  and 
caudal  fins  were  double;  the  anal  fin  being  attached  to  the 
body  in  a  vertical  line:  the  eyes  also  were  enormously  large 
and  protuberant. 

Hive-Bees. 

Bees  have  been  domesticated  from  an  ancient  period;  if 
indeed  their  state  can  be  considered  one  of  domestication, 
for  they  search  for  their  own  food,  with  the  exception  of  a 

53  W.      F.      Mayers,      '  Chinese  toire    Naturelle,'     tome     v.     r«Re 

Notes   and    Queries,'    Aug.,    1868,  270.  , 

,5    -123  •*  '  5T  .  Observations  in  Nat.  Hist., 

5*'Proc.     Zoolog.     Soc.,'     May  1846,    p.    211       I)r     (iniy    has   do 

2^th    1842  scribed,   in   '  Annals  and   Map.   of 

^^'Yarrell's     'British     Fishes,'       ^>l^  "i«t-'\  l;^''^'^!^;  ^S^m.Vt'p 'if 
vol.  i.  p.  319.  similar   variety,   but   destitute  of 

5«  'Dictionnaire    Class.     d'His-       a  dorsal  fin. 
21 


308 


HIVE-BEES. 


Chap.  VIII. 


little  generally  given  to  them  during  the  winter.  Their  habi- 
tation is  a  hive  instead  of  a  hole  in  a  tree.  Bees,  however, 
have  been  transported  into  almost  every  quarter  of  the  world, 
so  that  climate  ought  to  have  produced  whatever  direct  effect 
it  is  capable  of  producing.  It  is  frequently  asserted  that 
the  bees  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain  differ  in  size, 
colour,  and  temi3er ;  and  Godron  ^*  says  that  they  are  gen- 
erally larger  in  the  south  than  in  other  parts  of  France; 
it  has  also  been  asserted  that  the  little  bro^\^i  bees  of  High 
Burgundy,  when  transported  to  La  Bresse  become  large  and 
yellow  in  the  second  generation.  But  these  statements  re- 
quire confirmation.  As  far  as  size  is  concerned,  it  is  known 
that  bees  produced  in  very  old  combs  are  smaller,  owing  to 
the  cells  having  become  smaller  from  the  successive  old 
cocoons.  The  best  authorities  ^''  concur  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Ligurian  race  or  species,  i)resently  to  be  men- 
tioned, distinct  breeds  do  not  exist  in  Britain  or  on  the 
Continent.  There  is,  however,  even  in  the  same  stock,  some 
variability  in  colour.  Thus,  Mr.  Woodbury  states,°°  that  he 
has  several  times  seen  queen  bees  of  the  common  kind  annu- 
lated  with  yellow-like  Ligurian  queens,  and  the  latter  dark- 
coloured  like  common  bees.  He  has  also  observed  variations 
in  the  colour  of  the  drones,  without  any  corresponding  differ- 
ence in  the  queens  or  workers  of  the  same  hive.  The  great 
apiarian,  Dzierzon,  in  answer  to  my  queries  on  this  subject, 
says,"^  that  in  Germany  bees  of  some  stocks  are  decidedly 
dark,  whilst  others  are  remarkable  for  their  yellow  colour. 
Bees  also  seem  to  differ  in  habits  in  different  districts,  for 
Dzierzon  adds,  "  If  many  stocks  with  their  offspring  are  more 
inclined  to  swarm,  whilst  others  are  richer  in  honey,  so  that 
some  bee-keepers  even  distinguish  between  swarming  and 
honey-gathering  bees,  this  is  a  habit  which  has  become  second 
nature,  caused  by  the  customary  mode  of  keeping  the  bees 


88  •  De  I'Espece.'  1859,  p.  459. 
With  respect  to  the  bees  of  Bur- 
gundy, see  M.  Gerard,  art.  '  Es- 
pece,'  in  '  Diet.  Univers.  d'Hist. 
Nat.' 

58  Sec  a  discussion  on  this  sub- 
ject in  answer  to  a  question  of 
mine,  in  '  Journal  of  Horticul- 
ture,' 1862,  pp.  225-242;  also  Mr. 
Bevan  Fox,  in  ditto,  1802,  p.  284. 

^°  This  excellent  observer  may 


be  implicitly  trusted;  see  'Jour- 
nal of  Horticulture,'  July  14th, 
1863,  p.  39. 

^1  '  Journal  of 
Sept.  9th  1862,  p 
Herr  Kleine  on 
(Nov.  11th,  p.  643),  who  sums  up, 
that,  though  there  is  some  varia- 
bility in  colour,  no  constant  or 
perceptible  differences  can  be  de- 
tected in  the  bees  of  Germany. 


Horticulture,' 
463;  see  also 
same     subject 


Chap.  VIII.  HIVE-BEES. 


309 


and  the  pasturage  of  the  district.  For  example,  what  a  dif- 
ference in  this  respect  one  may  perceive  to  exist  between 
the  bees  of  the  Liineburg  heath  and  those  of  this  country!  " 
.  .  .  "Eemoving  an  old  queen  and  substituting  a  youn^,' 
one  of  the  current  year  is  here  an  infallible  mode  of  keep- 
ing the  strongest  stock  from  swarming  and  preventing  drone- 
breeding;  whilst  the  same  means  if  adopted  in  Jianover 
would  certainly  be  of  no  avail."  I  procured  a  hive  full 
of  dead  bees  from  Jamaica,  where  they  have  long  been  natu- 
ralised, and,  on  carefully  comparing  them  under  the  micro- 
scope with  my  own  bees,  I  could  detect  not  a  trace  of 
difference. 

This  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  hive-bee,  wherever 
kept,  may  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  great  difficulty,  or 
rather  impossibility,  of  bringing  selection  into  play  by  pair- 
ing particular  queens  and  drones,  for  these  insects  unite  only 
during  flight.  ISTor  is  there  any  record,  with  a  single  partial 
exception,  of  any  person  having  separated  and  bred  from  a 
hive  in  which  the  workers  presented  some  appreciable  dilfer- 
ence.  In  order  to  form  a  new  breed,  seclusion  from  other 
bees  would,  as  w^e  now  know,  be  indispensable;  for  since  the 
introduction  of  the  Ligurian  bee  into  Germany  and  England, 
it  has  been  found  that  the  drones  wander  at  least  two  miles 
from  their  own  hives,  and  often  cross  with  the  queens  of  the 
common  bee.'''  The  Ligurian  bee,  although  perfectly  fertile 
when  crossed  wdth  the  common  kind,  is  ranked  by  most 
naturalists  as  a. distinct  species,  whilst  by  others  it  is  ranked 
as  a  variety :  but  this  form  need  not  here  be  noticed,  as  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  the  product  of  domestica- 
tion. The  Egyptian  and  some  other  bees  are  likewise  ranked 
by  Dr.  Gerstacker,'^  but  not  by  other  highly  competent 
judges,  as  geographical  races;  he  grounds  his  conclusion 
in  chief  part  on  the  fact  that  in  certain  districts,  as  in  the 
Crimea  and  Rhodes,  they  vary  so  much  in  colour,  that  the 
several  geographical  races  can  be  closely  connected  by  inter- 
mediate forms. 

I  have  alluded  to  a  single  instance  of  the  separation  and 

62  Mr.  Wooflburv  has  publishefl  "'  '  Annals    and     M.ifr.     of    Nat. 

several  siK-h  ar-connts  in  '  Journal  Hist.,'  3rd  series,  vol.  xi.  p.  liM. 
of  Horticulture,'  1861  and  1862. 


;310  SILK-MOTHS.  Chap.  VIII. 

j)reservation  of  a  particular  stock  of  bees.  Mr.  Lowe  ^  pro- 
•cured  some  bees  from  a  cottager  a  few  miles  from  Edinburgh, 
and  perceived  that  they  differed  from  the  common  bee  in  the 
hairs  on  the  head  and  thorax  being  lighter  coloured  and  more 
profuse  in  quantity.  From  the  date  of  the  introduction  of 
the  Ligurian  bee  in  Great  Britain  we  may  feel  sure  that 
these  bees  had  not  been  crossed  with  this  form.  Mr.  Lowe 
propagated  this  variety,  but  unfortunately  did  not  separate 
the  stock  from  his  other  bees,  and  after  three  generations  the 
new  character  was  almost  completely  lost.  ^NTevertheless,  as 
he  adds,  "  a  greater  number  of  the  bees  still  retain  traces, 
though  faint,  of  the  original  colony."  This  case  shows  us 
what  could  probably  be  effected  by  careful  and  long-continued 
selection  applied  exclusively  to  the  workers,  for,  as  we  have 
.seen,  queens  and  drones  cannot  be  selected  and  paired. 

Silk-Moths. 

These  insects  are  in  several  respects  interesting  to  us, 
more  especially  because  they  have  varied  largely  at  an  early 
period  of  life,  and  the  variations  have  been  inherited  at  corre- 
sponding periods.  As  the  value  of  the  silk-moth  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  cocoon,  every  change  in  its  structure  and  quali- 
ties has  been  carefully  attended  to,  and  races  differing  much 
in  the  cocoon,  but  hardly  at  all  in  the  adult  state,  have  been 
produced.  With  the  races  of  most  other  domestic  animals, 
the  young  resemble  each  other  closely,  whilst  the  adults  differ 
:much. 

It  would  be  useless,  even  if  it  were  possible,  to  describe  all 
the  many  kinds  of  silk-worms.  Several  distinct  species  exist 
in  India  and  China  which  produce  useful  silk,  and  some  of 
these  are  capable  of  freely  crossing  with  the  common  silk- 
moth,  as  has  been  recently  ascertained  in  France.  Captain 
Hutton  ^^  states  that  throughout  the  world  at  least  six  species 
have  been  domesticated;  and  he  believes  that  the  silk-moths 
reared  in  Europe  belong  to  two  or  three  species.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  opinion  of  several  capable  judges  who  have  par- 
ticularly attended  to  the  cultivation  of  this  insect  in  France; 
and  hardly  accords  with  some  facts  presently  to  be  given. 

^*  '  The       Cottage       Gardener,'  ^s  «  Transact.   Entomolog.  Soc.,' 

May,    1860.    p.    110;    and    ditto    in        3rd    series,    vol.    iii.    pp.    143-173, 
"Journal  of  Hort.,'  1862,  p.  242.  and  pp.  295-331. 


Chap.  VIII.  THEIR  DIFFERENCES.  311 

The  common  silk-moth  (Bomhyx  mori)  was  brou^-ht  to 
Constantinople  m  the  sixth  century,  whence  is  was  carried 
into  Italy,  and  in  1494  into  France."  Everythiii^r  Ims  been 
favourable  for  the  variation  of  this  insect.  Jt  is  believed 
to  have  been  domesticated  in  China  as  lon^^  ayro  as  2700  h.c 
It  has  been  kept  under  unnatural  and  diversified  conditions 
of  life,  and  has  been  transported  into  many  countries.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  nature  of  the  food  given  to  the 
caterpillar  influences  to  a  certain  extent  the  character  of  tlie 
breed."  Disuse  has  apparently  aided  in  checking  the  develop- 
ment of  the  wings.  But  the  most  important  element  in  the 
production  of  the  many  now  existing,  much  modified  races, 
no  doubt  has  been  the  close  attention  which  has  long  been 
applied  in  many  countries  to  every  promising  variation. 
The  care  taken  in  Europe  in  the  selection  of  the  best  cocoons 
and  moths  for  breeding  is  notorious,"'  and  the  production  of 
eggs  is  followed  as  a  distinct  trade  in  parts  of  France.  I 
have  made  inquiries  through  Dr.  Falconer,  and  am  assured 
that  in  India  the  natives  are  equally  careful  in  the  process 
of  selection.  In  China  the  production  of  eggs  is  confined  to 
certain  favourable  districts,  and  the  raisers  are  precluded  by 
law  from  producing  silk,  so  that  their  whole  attention  may 
be  necessarily  given  up  to  this  one  object."" 

The  following  details  on  the  differences  between  the  several 
breeds  are  taken,  when  not  stated  to  the  contrary,  from  M.  Kobi- 
net's  excellent  work,^"  which  bears  every  sign  of  care  and  large 
experience.  The  eggs  in  the  different  races  vary  in  colour,  in 
shape  (being  round,  elliptic  or  oval),  and  in  size.  The  eggs  laid  in 
June  in  the  south  of  France,  and  in  July  in  the  central  provinces,, 
do  not  hatch  until  the  following  spring;  and  it  is  in  vain,  says 
M,  Robinet,  to  expose  them  to  a  temperature  gradually  raised,  in 
order  that  the  caterpillar  may  be  quickly  developed,  'i  ot  occa- 
sionally, without  any  known  cause,  batches  of  eggs  are  pioduced, 
which  immediately  begin  to  undergo  the  proper  changes,  and  are 
hatched  in  from  twenty  to  thirty  days.  From  llicse  and  some 
other  analogous  facts  it  mav  be  concluded  that  the  Trevoltini  silk- 


66 


Godron,   '  De  I'Espece.'  1859.  ^^  See,    for   instnnco.    M.    A.    de 

torn.    i.   p.   460.     The   antiquity   of  Quatrefasrcs'  '  En-'lcs  snr  Ics  Ma- 

the  sillvworm  in  Cliinn  is  }?iven  on  ladies    aetuellos   dn    V«'r   ;"\    Sole,' 

the  authority  of  Stanislas  Jnlion.  IcS.V.).   p.   lol. 

^'^  Sec     the     remarks     of     Prof.  ''''My  .inthorif  i»>s  for  th«»  sfato- 
Westwood,     Gen.     Hearsey,     and  nionts  will  he  jjivcn  in  thf  chap- 
others  at  the  ineetinj?  of  the  En-  ter  on  Selection, 
tomolog.     Soc.    of    London,    July,  '•*  '  Manuel    <lo    rEducatcur    de- 
1861.  Vers  i  Soie,'  1S4S. 


312 


SILK-MOTHS. 


Chap.  VIII. 


worms  of  Italy,  of  which  the  caterpillars  are  hatched  in  from  fifteen 
to  tAventy  days,  do  not  necessarily  form,  as  has  been  maintained,  a 
distinct  species.  Although  the  breeds  which  live  in  temperate 
countries  produce  eggs  which  cannot  be  immediately  hatched  by 
artificial  heat,  yet  when  they  are  removed  to  and  reared  in  a  hot 
country  they  gradually  acquire  the  character  of  quick  develop- 
ment, as  in  the  Trevoltini  races." 

CatcrpUhirs. — These  vary  greatly  in  size  and  colour.  The  skin 
is  generally  white,  sometimes  mottled  with  black  or  grey,  and  occa- 
sionally quite  black.  The  colour,  hoA\ever,  as  M.  Robinet  asserts, 
is  not  constant,  even  in  perfectly  pure  breeds;  except  in  the  nice 
tigrde,  so  called  from  being  marked  with  transverse  black  stripes. 
As  the  general  colour  of  the  caterpillar  is  not  correlated  with  that 
of  the  silk,'^  this  character  is  disregarded  by  cultivators,  and  has 
not  been  fixed  by  selection.  Captain  Hutton,  in  the  paper  before 
referred  to,  has  argued  with  much  force  that  the  dark  tiger-like 
marks,  which  so  frequently  appear  during  the  later  moults  in  the 
caterpillars  of  various  breeds,  are  due  to  reversion:  for  the  cater- 
pillars of  several  allied  wild  species  of  Bombyx  are  marked  and 
coloured  in  this  manner.  He  separated  some  caterpillars  with  the 
tiger-like  marks,  and  in  the  succeeding  spring  (pp.  149.  298)  nearly 
all  the  caterpillars  reared  from  them  were  dark-brindled,  and  the 
tints  became  still  darker  in  the  third  generation.  The  moths 
reared  from  these  caterpillars  '^  also  became  darker,  and  resembled 
in  colouring  the  wild  B.  hutton i.  On  this  view  of  the  tiger-like 
marks  being  due  to  reversion,  the  persistency  with  which  they  are 
transmitted  is  intelligible. 

Several  years  ago  Mrs.  Whitby  took  great  pains  in  breeding 
silkworms  on  a  large  scale,  and  she  informed  me  that  some  of  her 
caterpillars  had  dark  eyebrows.  This  is  probably  the  first  step  in 
reversion  towards  the  tiger-like  marks,  and  I  was  curious  to  know 
whether  so  trifling  a  character  would  be  inherited.  At  my  request 
she  separated  in  1848  twenty  of  these  caterpillars,  and  having  kept 
the  moths  separate,  bred  from  them.  Of  the  many  caterpillars 
thus  reared,  "  every  one  without  exception  had  eyebrows,  some 
darker  and  more  decidedly  marked  than  the  others,  but  all  had 
eyebrows  more  or  less  plainly  visible."  Black  caterpillars  occa- 
sionally appear  amongst  those  of  the  common  kind,  but  in  so  vari- 
able a  manner,  that,  according  to  M.  Robinet.  the  same  race  will 
one  year  exclusively  produce  white  caterpillars,  and  the  next  year 
many  black  ones;  nevertheless,  I  have  been  informed   by  M.  A. 


"  Robinet,  ibid.,  pp.  12,  31S.  T 
may  add  that  the  eggs  of  N. 
American  silkworms  taken  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands  produced  moths 
at  very  irregular  periods:  and  the 
motlis  thus  raised  yielded  eggs 
which  were  even  worse  in  this  re- 
spect. Some  were  hatched  in  ten 
days,  and  others  not  until  after 
the  lapse  of   many   months.      No 


doubt  a  regular  early  character 
would  ultimately  have  been  ac- 
quired, t^re  review  in  '  Athe- 
napum.'  1844,  p.  .320.  of  J.  .Tarves' 
'  Scenes  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.' 

"-'  '  The  Art  of  rearing  Silk- 
worms.' translated  from  Count 
Dandolo,  1S25,  p.  23. 

'3  '  Transact.  Ent.  Soc.,'  ut  su- 
pra, pp.  153,  308. 


Chap.  VIII.  THEIR  DIFFEREXCES.  313 

Bossi  of  Geneva,  that,  if  these  black  caterpilhirs  arc  soparaU-ly 
bred  from,  they  produce  the  same  colour;  but  the  cocoons  and 
moths  reared  from  them  do  not  present  any  diirerence. 

The  caterpillar  in  Europe  ordinarily  moults  four  tinu's  before 
passing  into  the  cocoon  stage;  but  there  mo  races  "i  trois  nines," 
and  the  Trevoltini  race  likewise  moults  only  thrice.  It  might  have 
been  thought  that  so  important  a  physiologic;il  dillVrence  would 
not  have  arisen  under  domestication;  but  M.  llobiiict  ''  states  that, 
on  the  one  hand,  ordinary  caterpillars  occasiouallv  spin  their 
cocoons  after  only  three. moults,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  "  prcscjue 
toutes  les  races  a  trois  mues,  que  nous  avons  cxperiinentr'es,  ont 
fait  quatre  mues  a  la  seconde  ou  a  la  troisienie  annt'e,  ce  qui 
semble  prouver  qu'il  a  sulh  de  les  placer  dans  des  conditions 
favorables  pour  leur  rendre  une  faculte  quelles  avaient  perdue  sous 
des  influences  moins  favorables."' 

Cocoons. — The  caterpillar  in  changing  into  the  cocoon  loses 
about  50  per  cent,  of  its  weight;  but  the  amount  of  loss  ditlers  in 
different  breeds,  and  this  is  of  importance  to  the  cultivator.  The 
cocoon  in  the  different  races  presents  characteristic  dillVrences; 
being  large  or  small;— nearly  spherical  with  no  constriction,  as  in 
the  lidce  de  Loriol,  or  cylindrical,  with  either  a  deep  or  slight  con- 
striction in  the  middle;  with  the  two  ends,  or  with  one  end  alone, 
more  or  less  pointed.  The  silk  varies  in  fineness  and  quality,  and 
in  being  nearly  white,  but  of  two  tints,  or  yellow.  Generally  the 
colour  of  the  silk  is  not  strictly  inherited:  but  in  the  chapter  on 
Selection  I  shall  give  a  curious  account  how-,  in  the  course  of  sixty- 
five  generations,  the  number  of  vellow  cocoons  in  one  breed  has 
been  reduced  in  France  from  one  hundred  to  thirty-five  in  the 
thousand.  According  to  Eobinet,  the  white  race,  called  Sina,  by 
careful  selection  during  the  last  seventv-five  vears,  "  est  arrivC'e  i\ 
un  tel  etat  de  purete,  qu'on  ne  voit  pas  un  seul  cocon  jaune  dans 
des  millions  de  cocons  blancs."  "  Cocoons  are  sometimes  formed, 
as  is  well  known,  entirely  destitute  of  silk,  which  yet  produce 
moths;  unfortunately  INIrs.  Whitby  was  prevented  by  an  accident 
from  ascertaining  whether  this  character  would   prove  hereditary. 

Adult  stage. — I  can  find  no  account  of  any  constant  diirerenee 
in  the  moths  of  the  most  distinct  races,  Mrs.  Whitby  assured  me 
that  there  was  none  in  the  several  kinds  bred  by  her:  and  1  have 
received  a  similar  statement  from  the  eminent  naturalist,  M.  de 
Quatrefages.  Captain  Hutton  also  says'"  that  the  moths  of  all 
kinds  vary  much  in  colour,  but  in  nearly  the  same  inconstant 
manner.  Considering  how  much  the  cocoons  in  the  several  races 
differ,  this  fact  is  of  interest,  and  may  probably  be  accounted  for 
on  the  same  principle  as  the  fluctuating  variability  of  colour  in  the 
caterpillar,  namely,  that  there  has  been  no  motive  for  selecting 
and  perpetuating  anv  particular  variation. 

The  males  of  the'wild  Bombycida^  "fly  swiftly  in  the  day-time 

^^  Robinet,   ibid.,   p.   .317.  '"  '  Transact.   Eut.  See.,'  ut  su- 

"  Robinet,  ibid.,  pp.  306-317.  pra,  p.  317. 


314  SILK-MOTHS.  Chap.  YIII. 

and  evening,  but  the  females  are  usually  very  sluggish  and  in- 
active." "  In  several  moths  of  this  family  the  females  have  abor- 
tive Avings,  but  no  instance  is  known  of  the  males  being  incapable 
of  flight,  for  in  this  case  the  species  could  hardly  have  been  per- 
petuated. In  the  silk-moth  both  sexes  have  imperfect,  crumpled 
wings,  and  are  incapable  of  flight;  but  still  there  is  a  trace  of 
the  characteristic  difference  in  the  two  sexes;  for  though,  on  com- 
paring a  number  of  males  and  females,  I  could  detect  no  difference 
in  the  development  of  their  wings,  yet  I  was  assured  by  Mrs.  Whit- 
by that  the  males  of  the  moths  bred  by  her  used  their  wings  more 
than  the  females,  and  could  flutter  downwards,  though  never  up- 
wards. She  also  states  that,  when  the  females  first  emerge  from 
the  cocoon,  their  wings  are  less  expanded  than  those  of  the  male. 
The  degree  of  imperfection,  however,  in  the  wings  varies  much 
in  different  races  and  under  different  circumstances.  M.  Quatre- 
fages  "^  says  that  he  has  seen  a  number  of  moths  with  their  wings 
reduced  to  a  third,  fourth,  or  tenth  part  of  their  normal  dimen- 
sions, and  even  to  mere  short  straight  stumps:  "  il  me  semble  qu'il 
y  a  la  un  veritable  arret  de  developpement  partiel."  On  the  other 
hand,  he  describes  the  female  moths  of  the  Andre  Jean  breed  as 
having  "  leurs  ailes  larges  et  etalees.  Un  seul  presente  quelques 
courbures  irregulieres  et  des  plis  anormaux."  As  moths  and  but- 
terflies of  all  kinds  reared  from  wild  caterpillars  under  confine- 
ment often  have  crippled  wings,  the  same  cause,  whatever  it  may 
be,  has  probably  acted  on  silk-moths,  but  the  disuse  of  their  wings 
during  so  many  generations  has,  it  may  be  suspected,  likewise 
come  into  play. 

The  moths  of  many  breeds  fail  to  glue  their  eggs  to  the  surface 
on  which  they  are  laid,"'  but  this  proceeds,  according  to  Captain 
Hutton,*°  merely  from  the  glands  of  the  ovipositor  being  weakened. 

As  with  other  long-domesticated  animals,  the  instincts  of  the 
silk-moth  have  suffered.  The  caterpillars,  when  placed  on  a  mul- 
berry-tree, often  commit  the  strange  mistake  of  devouring  the 
base  of  the  leaf  on  which  they  are  feeding,  and  consequently  fall 
down;  but  they  are  capable,  according  to  M.  Robinet,**^  of  again 
crawling  up  the  trunk.  Even  this  capacity  sometimes  fails,  for 
M.  Martins  ^^  placed  some  caterpillars  on  a  tree,  and  those  which 
fell  were  not  able  to  remount  and  perished  of  hunger;  they  were 
even  incapable  of  passing  from  leaf  to  leaf. 

Some  of  the  modifications  which  the  silk-moth  has  undergone 
stand  in  correlation  with  one  another.  Thus,  the  eggs  of  the 
moths  which  produce  white  cocoons  and  of  those  which  produce 
yellow  cocoons  difi"er  slightly  in  tint.  The  abdominal  feet,  also, 
of  the   caterpillars  which   yield   white   cocoons   are   always   white, 

"Stephen's  Illustrations  'Hau-  "^  '  Quatrefages,   '  Etudes,'  &c., 

stellata.'   vol.    ii.   p.   35.     See  also  p.  214. 

Capt.    Hutton,     '  Transactions    of  ^^  '  Transact.   Ent.   Soc.,'  ut  su- 

the     Entomological     Soc.,'     ibid.,  pra.  p.  151. 
p.  152.,  81 'Manuel  de  I'Educateur,'  &c., 

^*  '  Etudes  snr  les  Maladies  du  p.  26. 
Ver  a  Sole,'  1859,  pp.  304,  209.  ^-  Godron,    '  De  I'Espece,'  462. 


Chap.  VIII.  THEIR  DIFFERENCES.  3 15 

whilst  those  which  give  yellow  cocoons  are  invariabi}'  yellow." 
We  have  seen  that  the  caterpillars  witli  dark  li<:('r-lik('  slriprs  pro- 
duce moths  which  are  more  darkly  shaded  than  oilier  ukjIIis.  It 
seems  well  established^*  that  in  France  the  caterpilhirs  of  I  be  races 
which  produce  white  silk,  and  certain  bhick  caterpillars,  have  re- 
sisted, better  than  other  races,  the  disease  which  has  rccrntiy 
devastated  the  silk-districts.  Lastly,  tlie  races  dilFer  const  it  utitiil- 
ally,  for  some  do  not  succeed  so  well  under  a  temperate  cliniute  as 
others;  and  a  damp  soil  does  not  equally  injure  all  the  raccs.*^ 

From  these  various  facts  we  learn  that  silk-moths,  like  the 
higher  animals,  vary  greatly  under  long-continued  domes- 
tication. We  learn  also  the  more  important  fact  that  varia- 
tions may  occur  at  various  periods  of  life,  and  be  inherited  at 
a  corresponding  period.  And  finally  we  see  that  insects  are 
amenable  to  the  great  principle  of  Selection. 

83  Quatrefages,    'Etudes,'    &c.,  »*  Robinet,   '  Manuel,' &c.,  p.  30.3. 

pp.  12,  209,  214.  «^  Robiuet,   ibid.,  p.  15. 


^1(3  CULTIVATED   PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

CULTIVATED    PLANTS  I     CEREAL   AND    CULINARY    PLANTS. 

Preliminary  Remarks  on  the  number  and  parentage  of  cultivated 
plants — First  steps  in  cultivation — Geographical  distribution  of  culti- 
vated plants. 

Cerealia. — Doubts  on  the  number  of  species. Wheat :  varieties  of— 

Individual  variability — Changed   habits — Selection — Ancient  history 

of   the    varieties. Maize :   Great    variation    of — Direct    action    of 

climate  on. 

'Culinary  Plants. — Cabbages  :  Varieties  of,   in  foliage  and  stems,  but 

not  in  other  parts — Parentage  of — Other  species  of  Brassica. Peas  : 

amount  of  difference  in  the  several  kinds,  chiefly  in  the  pods  and 
seed — Some  varieties  constant,  some  highly  variable — Do  not  inter- 
cross.  Beans. Potatoes  :  numerous  varieties  of — Differing  little, 

except  in  the  tubers — Characters  inherited. 

I  SHALL  not  enter  into  so  much  detail  on  the  variability  of 
■cultivated  plants,  as  in  the  case  of  domesticated   animals. 
The  subject  is  involved  in  much  difficulty.     Botanists  have 
.generally  neglected  cultivated  varieties,  as  beneath  their  no- 
tice.    In   several   cases    the   wild   prototype   is   unknown   or 
<loubtfully  known ;  and  in  other  cases  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
-distinguish  between  escaped  seedlings  and  truly  wild  plants, 
so  that  there  is  no  safe  standard  of  comparison  by  which  to 
judge  of  any  supposed  amount  of  change.     Xot  a  few  bota- 
nists believe  that  several  of  our  anciently  cultivated  plants 
Iiave  become  so  profoundly  modified  that  it  is  not  possible  now 
to  recognise  their  aboriginal  parent-forms.     Equally  perplex- 
ing are  the  doubts  whether  some  of  them  are  descended  from 
'One    species,    or    from    several    inextricably    commingled    by 
crossing    and    variation.     Variations    often    pass    into,    and 
■cannot  be  distinguished  from,  monstrosities;  and  monstrosi- 
ties are  of  little  significance  for  our  purpose.     Many  varie- 
ties are  propagated  solely  by  grafts,  buds,  layers,  bulbs,  &c., 
:and  frequently  it  is  not  known  how  far  their  peculiarities 
•can    be    transmitted    by    seminal    generation.     ]!v'evertheless 
some  facts  of  value  can  be  gleaned :  and  other  facts  will  here- 
.after    be    incidentally    given.     One     chief     object     in     the 


Chap.  IX.  PRELIMINARY  REMARKS.  317 

two  following  chapters  is  to  show  how  many  characters  in  our 
cultivated  plants  have  become  variable. 

Before  entering-  on  details  a  few  general  remarks  on  the 
origin  of  cultivated  plants  may  be  introduced.  M.  Alph.  Do 
Candolle'  in  an  admirable  discussion  on  this  subject,  in 
which  he  displays  a  wonderful  amount  of  knowledge,  gives  a 
list  of  157  of  the  most  useful  cultivated  plants.  Of  tliese  lie 
believes  that  85  are  almost  certainly  known  in  tlicir  wild 
state;  but  on  this  head  other  competent  judg<'s'  entertain 
great  doubts.  Of  40  of  them,  the  origin  is  admitted  by  M. 
De  Candolle  to  be  doubtful,  either  from  a  certain  amount  of 
dissimilarity  which  they  present  when  compared  witli  their 
nearest  allies  in  a  wild  state,  or  from  the  probability  of  the 
latter  not  being  truly  wild  plants,  but  seedlings  escaped  from 
culture.  Of  the  entire  157,  32  alone  are  ranked  by  ^I.  l)e 
Candolle  as  quite  imknown  in  their  aboriginal  condition. 
But  it  should  be  observed  that  he  does  not  include  in  his  list 
several  plants  which  present  ill-defined  characters,  namely, 
the  various  forms  of  pumpkins,  millet,  sorghum,  kidney-bean, 
dolichos,  capsicum,  and  indigo.  Xor  does  he  include  flowers; 
and  several  of  the  more  anciently  cultivated  flowers,  such  as 
certain  roses,  the  common  Imperial  lily,  the  tuberose,  and 
even  the  lilac,  are  said  ^  not  to  be  known  in  the  wild  state. 

From  the  relative  numbers  above  given,  and  from  other 
arguments  of  much  weight,  M.  De  Candolle  concludes  that 
plants  have  rarely  been  so  much  modified  by  culture  that 
they  cannot  be  identified  with  their  wild  prototypes.  But 
on  this  view,  considering  that  savages  probably  would  not 
have  chosen  rare  plants  for  cultivation,  that  useful  plants  are 
generally  conspicuous,  and  that  they  could  not  have  been  the 
inhabitants  of  deserts  or  of  remote  and  recently  discovered 
islands,  it  appears  strange  to  me  that  so  many  of  our  culti- 
vated plants  should  be  still  unknown  or  only  doubtfully 
known  in  the  wild  state.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of 
these  plants  have  been  profoundly  modified  by  culture,  the 
difficidty  disappears.     The  difficulty  would  also  be  removed 

1  '  Geoffraphie     botaniqne     rai-  on   cultivated   Plants.'   by   Dr-    A. 

sonnee,'  1855,  pp.  SIO  to  991.  Tarsioni-Tozzottl.     ^cc  also  '  Ldlu- 

-  Review    bv    Mr.    Bentham    in  burijh  Review.'  ISCC.  p.  ..10. 
'  Hort.    Journal,'   vol.    ix.    185.5,    p.  ^  •  Hist.    Notes.'    as    above,    by 

133,    entitled,     '  Historical    Notes  Targioui-Tozzettl. 


318  CULTIVATED   PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

if  they  have  been  exterminated  during  the  progress  of  civili- 
sation; but  M.  De  Candolle  has  shown  that  this  probably  has 
seldom  occurred.  As  soon  as  a  plant  was  cultivated  in  any 
country,  the  half-civilised  inhabitants  would  no  longer  have 
need  to  search  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  for  it,  and  thus 
lead  to  its  extirpation;  and  even  if  this  did  occur  during  a 
famine,  dormant  seeds  would  be  left  in  the  ground.  In  tropi- 
cal countries  the  wild  luxuriance  of  nature,  as  was  long  ago 
remarked  by  Humboldt,  overpowers  the  feeble  efforts  of  man. 
In  anciently  civilised  temperate  countries,  where  the  whole 
face  of  the  land  has  been  greatly  changed,  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  some  plants  have  become  extinct;  nevertheless 
De  Candolle  has  shown  that  all  the  plants  historically  known 
to  have  been  first  cultivated  in  Europe  still  exist  here  in  the 
wild  state. 

MM.  Loiseleur-Deslongchamps  *  and  De  Candolle  have  re- 
marked that  our  cultivated  plants,  more  especially  the  cereals, 
must  originally  have  existed  in  nearly  their  present  state; 
for  otherwise  thev  would  not  have  been  noticed  and  valued 
as  objects  of  food.  But  these  authors  apparently  have  not 
considered  the  many  accounts  given  by  travellers  of  the 
wretched  food  collected  by  savages.  I  have  read  an  account 
of  the  savages  of  Australia  cooking,  during  a  dearth,  many 
vegetables  in  various  ways,  in  the  hopes  of  rendering  them 
innocuous  and  more  nutritious.  Dr.  Hooker  found  the  half- 
starved  inhabitants  of  a  village  in  Sikhim  suffering  greatly 
from  having  eaten  arum-roots,*  which  they  had  pounded  and 
left  for  several  days  to  ferment,  so  as  partially  to  destroy 
their  poisonous  nature ;  and  he  adds  that  they  cooked  and  ate 
many  other  deleterious  plants.  Sir  Andrew  Smith  informs 
me  that  in  South  Africa  a  large  number  of  fruits  and  succu- 
lent leaves,  and  especially  roots,  are  used  in  times  of  scarcity. 
The  natives,  indeed,  know  the  properties  of  a  long  catalogue 
of  plants,  some  having  been  found  during  famines  to  be  eat- 
able, others  injurious  to  health,  or  even  destructive  to  life. 

*  '  Considerations    sur    les    C<'-  peces  offrant  a  I'origine  meme  un 

r6ales,'  1842,  p.  37.     '  G§ographie  avantage  incontestable." 
Bot.,'  1855.  p.  930.     "  Plus  on  sup-  ^  Dr.  Hooker  has  given  me  this 

pose  I'agriculture  ancienne  et  re-  information.     See,  also,  his  '  Him- 

montant     a    une     epoque     d'igno-  alayan     Journals,'     1854,     vol.     ii. 

ranee,  plus  il  est  probable  que  les  p.  49. 
cultivateurs  avaient  choisi  des  es- 


Chap.  IX.  PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 


319 


He  met  a  party  of  Baquanas  who,  having  been  exprlled  by  the 
conquering  Zulus,  had  lived  for  years  on  any  roots  or  leaves 
which  afforded  some  little  nutriment  and  distended  tlieir 
stomachs,  so  as  to  relieve  the  pangs  of  hunger.  'JMiey  looked 
like  walking  skeletons,  and  suffered  fearfully  from  con- 
stipation. Sir  Andrew  Smith  also  informs  me  that  on  such 
occasions  the  natives  observe  as  a  guide  for  themselves,  what 
the  wild  animals,  especially  baboons  and  monkeys,  cat. 

From  innumerable  experiments  made  through  dire  ne- 
cessity by  the  savages  of  every  land,  with  the  results  handed 
down  by  tradition,  the  nutritious,  stimulating,  and  medicinal 
properties  of  the  most  unpromising  plants  were  probably  first 
discovered.  It  appears,  for  instance,  at  first  an  inexplicable 
fact  that  untutored  man,  in  three  distant  quarters  of  the 
world,  should  have  discovered,  amongst  a  host  of  native 
plants,  that  the  leaves  of  the  tea-plant  and  mattee,  and  the 
berries  of  the  coffee,  all  included  a  stimulating  and  nutritious 
essence,  now  known  to  be  chemically  the  same.  We  can  also 
see  that  savages  suffering  from  severe  constipation  would 
naturally  observe  whether  any  of  the  roots  which  they  de- 
voured acted  as  aperients.  We  probably  owe  our  knowledge 
of  the  uses  of  almost  all  plants  to  man  having  originally  ex- 
isted in  a  barbarous  state,  and  having  been  often  compelled 
by  severe  want  to  try  as  food  almost  everything  which  he 
could  chew  and  swallow. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  habits  of  savages  in  many 
quarters  of  the  world,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  our 
cereal  plants  originally  existed  in  their  present  state  so 
valuable  to  man.  Let  us  look  to  one  continent  alone,  namely, 
Africa :  Earth "  states  that  the  slaves  over  a  large  part  of  the 
central  region  regularly  collect  the  seeds  of  a  wild  grass,  the 
Pennisetum  disticlium;  in  another  district  he  saw  women 
collecting  the  seeds  of  a  Poa  by  swinging  a  sort  of  basket 
through  the  rich  meadow-land.  Near  Tete,  Livingstone  ob- 
served the  natives  collecting  the  seeds  of  a  wild  grass,  and 
farther  south,  as  Andersson  informs  me,  the  natives  larg(>ly 
use  the  seed  of  a  grass  of  about  the  size  of  canary-seed,  which 
they  boil  in  water.     They  eat  also  the  roots  of  certain  reeds, 

6  '  Travels   in    Central    Africa,'        390;  vol.  ii.  pp.  '2\\  L'Cr..  27o.     Llv- 
Eng.  translat.,  vol.  i.  pp.  529  and       iugstoue's  '  Travels,'  p.  ool. 


320 


CULTIVATED  PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


and  every  one  has  read  of  the  Bushmen  prowling  about  and 
digging  up  with  a  fire-hardened  stake  various  roots.  Similar 
facts  with  respect  to  the  collection  of  seeds  of  wild  grasses  in 
other  parts  of  the  w^orld  could  be  given.^ 

Accustomed  as  we  are  to  our  excellent  vegetables  and 
luscious  fruits,  we  can  hardly  persuade  ourselves  that  the 
stringy  roots  of  the  wild  carrot  and  parsnip,  or  the  little 
shoots  of  the  wild  asparagus,  or  crabs,  sloes,  &c.,  should  ever 
have  been  valued;  yet,  from  what  we  know^  of  the  habits  of 
Australian  and  South  African  savages,  we  need  feel  no  doubt 
on  this  head.  The  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  during  the 
Stone-period  collected  wild  crabs,  sloes,  bullaces,  hips  of  roses, 
elderberries,  beechmast,  and  other  wild  berries  and  fruit.* 
Jemmy  Button,  a  Fuegian  on  board  the  Beagle,  remarked  to 
me  that  the  poor  and  acid  black-currants  of  Tierra  del  Fuego 
w^ere  too  sweet  for  his  taste. 

The  savage  inhabitants  of  each  land,  having  found  out  by 
many  and  hard  trials  where  plants  were  useful,  or  could  be 
rendered  useful  by  various  cooking  processes,  would  after  a 
time  take  the  first  step  in  cultivation  by  planting  them  near 
their  usual  abodes.  Livingstone "  states  that  the  savage  Ba- 
tokas  sometimes  left  wild  fruit-trees  standing  in  their  gar- 
dens, and  occasionally  even  planted  them,  "  a  practice  seen 
nowdiere  else  amongst  the  natives."  But  Du  Chaillu  saw 
a  palm  and  some  other  wild  fruit-trees  which  had  been 
planted;  and  these  trees  were  considered  private  property. 
The  next  step  in  cultivation,  and  this  would  require  but  little 
forethought,  would  be  to  sow  the  seeds  of  useful  plants ;  and 
as  the  soil  near  the  hovels  of  the  natives  ^°  would  often  be  in 
some  degree  manured,  improved  varieties  would  sooner  or 
later  arise.     Or  a  wild  and  unusually  good  variety  of  a  na- 


■^  For  instance,  in  both  North 
and  South  America.  Mr.  Edge- 
worth  ('  Journal  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.,' 
vol.  vi.  Bot..  1862,  p.  181)  states 
that  in  the  deserts  of  the  Punjab 
poor  women  sweep  up,  "  bj*  a 
whisk  into  straw  baskets,"  the 
seeds  of  four  genera  of  grasses, 
namely,  of  Agrostis.  Panicum, 
Cenchrus,  and  Pennisetum,  as 
well  as  the  seeds  of  four  other 
genera  belonging  to  distinct  fami- 
lies. 

8  Prof.  O.  Heer,  '  Die  Pflanzen 


der  Pfahlbauten,  1SG6,  aus  dem 
Neujahr.  Naturforseh.  Gesell- 
schaft.'  1866:  and  Dr.  H.  Christ, 
in  Riitimever's  '  Die  Fauna  der 
Pfahlbauten.'  1861,  s.  226. 

«  •  Travels,'  p.  535.  Du  Chail- 
lu. '  Adventures  in  Equatorial 
Africa,'  1861,   p.  445. 

10  In  Tierra  del  Fuego  the  spot 
where  wigwams  had  formerly 
stood  could  be  distinguished  at  a 
great  distance  by  the  bright  green 
tint  of  native  vegetation. 


Chap.  IX.  PRELDIIXARY  REMARKS.  301 

■tive  plant  might  attract  the  attention  of  some  wise  old  savage ; 
and  he  would  transplant  it,  or  sow  its  seed.  That  superior 
varieties  of  wild  fruit-trees  occasionally  are  found  is  certain, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  American  species  of  hawthorns,  plums] 
cherries,  grapes,  and  hickories,  specified  by  Professor  Asa 
Gray."  Downing-  also  refers  to  certain  wild  varieties  of  the 
hickory,  as  being  "  of  much  larger  size  and  finer  fiavour  than 
the  common  species."  I  have  referred  to  American  fruit- 
trees,  because  we  are  not  in  this  case  troubled  with  d<»ul)ts. 
whether  or  not  the  varieties  are  seedlings  which  have  escai)ed 
from  cultivation.  Transplanting  any  superior  variety,  or 
sowing  its  seeds,  hardly  implies  more  forethought  than  might 
be  expected  at  an  early  and  rude  period  of  civilisation.  Even 
the  Australian  barbarians  "  have  a  law  that  no  plant  bearing 
seeds  is  to  be  dug  up  after  it  has  flowered;"  and  Sir  G. 
Grey  ^"  never  saw  this  law,  evidently  framed  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  plant,  violated.  We  see  the  same  spirit  in  the  su- 
perstitious belief  of  the  Fuegians,  that  killing  water-fowl 
whilst  very  young  wdll  be  followed  by  "  much  rain,  snow, 
blow  much."  ^^  I  may  add,  as  showing  forethought  in  the 
lowest  barbarians,  that  the  Fuegians  when  they  find  a  strand- 
ed whale  bury  large  portions  in  the  sand,  and  during  the 
often-recurrent  famines  travel  from  great  distances  for  the 
remnants  of  the  half-putrid  mass. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  ^*  that  we  do  not  owe  a  single 
useful  plant  to  Australia  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, — coun- 
tries abounding  to  an  unparalleled  degree  with  endemic  spe- 
cies,— or  to  New  Zealand,  or  to  America  south  of  the  Plata; 
and,  according  to  some  authors,  not  to  America  northward  of 
Mexico.  I  do  not  believe  that  any  edible  or  valuable  plant, 
except  the  canary-grass,  has  been  derived  from  an  oceanic  or 
uninhabited  island.  If  nearly  all  our  useful  plant-^,  natives 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  South  America,  had  originally  existed 
in  their  present  condition,  the  complete  absence  of  similarly 
useful  plants  in  the  great  countries  just  named  would  be  in- 
deed a  surprising  fact.     But  if  these  plants   have  been   so 

11  'American  Acad,  of  Arts  and  "  Darwin's     '  .Toiinial     nf     Ko- 

Sciences,'  April  lOtli.  ISOO.  p.  413,  searches,'  l.s4.'.  p.  i>ir.. 
Downing:,    '  The   Fruits   of   Amer-  '*  De    Candolh'    has    fahnlated 

lea,'  1S45,  p.  261.  the  facts  in  the  most   iiilerestlnff 

1-  '  Journals  of   Expeditions    in  manner  in  his  '  GOographle  Hot.,' 

Australia,'  1841,  vol.  ii.  p.  292.  p.  980. 


322  CULTIVATED  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

greatly  modified  and  improved  by  culture  as  no  longer  closely 
to  resemble  any  natural  species,  we  can  understand  why  the 
above-named  countries  have  given  us  no  useful  plants,  for 
they  were  either  inhabited  by  men  who  did  not  cultivate  the 
ground  at  all,  as  in  Australia  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or 
who  cultivated  it  very  imperfectly,  as  in  some  parts  of 
America.  These  countries  do  yield  plants  which  are  useful 
to  savage  man ;  and  Dr.  Hooker '"  enumerates  no  less  than 
107  such  species  in  Australia  alone;  but  these  plants  have 
not  been  improved,  and  consequently  cannot  compete  with 
those  which  have  been  cultivated  and  improved  during  thou- 
sands of  years  in  the  civilised  world. 

The  case  of  New  Zealand,  to  which  fine  island  we  as  yet 
owe  no  widely  cultivated  plant,  may  seem  opposed  to  this 
view;  for,  when  first  discovered,  the  natives  cultivated  sev- 
eral plants;  but  all  inquirers  believe,  in  accordance  with  the 
traditions  of  the  natives,  that  the  early  Polynesian  colonists 
brought  with  them  seeds  and  roots,  as  well  as  the  dog,  which 
had  been  wisely  preserved  during  their  long  voyage.  The 
Polynesians  are  so  frequently  lost  on  the  ocean  that  this 
degree  of  prudence  would  occur  to  any  wandering  party: 
hence  the  early  colonists  of  New  Zealand,  like  the  later  Euro- 
pean colonists,  would  not  have  had  any  strong  inducement  to 
cultivate  the  aboriginal  plants.  According  to  De  Candolle  we 
•owe  thirty-three  useful  plants  to  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chile; 
nor  is  this  surprising  when  we  remember  the  civilised  state 
of  the  inhabitants,  as  shown  by  the  fact  of  their  having  prac- 
tised artificial  irrigation  and  made  tunnels  through  hard 
rocks  without  the  use  of  iron  or  gunpowder,  and  who,  as  we 
shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  fully  recognised,  as  far  as  ani- 
mals were  concerned,  and  therefore  probably  in  the  case  of 
plants,  the  important  principle  of  selection.  We  owe  some 
plants  to  Brazil;  and  the  early  voyagers,  namely,  Vespucius, 
and  Cabral,  describe  the  country  as  thickly  peopled  and  culti- 
vated.    In   North   America  ^''   the   natives   cultivated   maize, 

15  '  Flora    of    Australia,'    Intro-  more  than  one  general  collection 

duction.   p.   ex.  of  Voyajres,  I  do  not  give  precise 

^*^  For  Canada,   see  .7.   Cartier's  references  to  the  pages.    »Sfee  also, 

Voyage   in   1534;    for   Florida,    see  for  several  references,   Asa  Gray, 

Narvaez  and  Ferdinand  de  Soto's  in  the  *  American  Journal  of  Sci- 

Yoyages.      As    I    have    consulted  ence,'    vol.    xxiv.,    Nov..    1857,    p. 

these  and   other   old   Voyages   in  441.      For    the    traditions    of    the 


9\ 


Chap.  IX. 


CEREAL  PLAXTS. 


323 


pumpkins,  gourds,  beans,  and  peas,  "  all  different  from  ours  " 
and  tobacco;  and  we  are  hardly  justiHed  in  assumiii^r  il,at 
none  of  our  present  plants  are  descended  from  tlicsc  North 
American  forms.  Had  Xorth  America  been  civilised  for  ad 
long  a  period,  and  as  thickly  peopled,  as  Asia  or  Europe,  it  is 
probable  that  the  native  vines,  walnuts,  mulberrich,  crabs 
and  plums,  would  have  given  rise,  after  a  long  course  of 
cuhivation,  to  a  multiple  of  varieties,  some  extremely  dif- 
ferent from  their  parent-stocks;  and  escaped  seedlings  \vould 
have  caused  in  the  New,  as  in  the  Old  World,  nmch  per- 
plexity with  respect  to  their  specific  distinctness  and  pa- 
rentage." 

Cerealia.—l  will  now  enter  on  details.  The  cereals  cultivated 
m  Europe  consist  of  four  genera— wheat,  rve,  barley,  and  oat.s 
Of  wheat  the  best  modern  authorities^'*  niake*^  four  or  Vive  or  even 
seven  distinct  species;  of  rye,  one;  of  barley,  three;  and  of  oats 
tAVO,  three,  or  four  species.  So  that  altogether  our  cereals  are 
ranked  by  different  authors  under  from  ten  to  fifteen  distinct 
species.  These  have  given  rise  to  a  multitude  of  varieties.  It  i.s 
a  remarkable  fact  that  botanists  are  not  universally  agreed  on  the 
aboriginal  parent-form  of  any  one  cereal  plant.  *Foi^  instance,  a 
high  authority  writes  in  1855/'  "We  ourselves  liave  no  hesitation 
in  stating  our  conviction,  as  the  result  of  all  the  most  reliable 
evidence,  that  none  of  these  Cereali  exist,  or  have  existed,  truly 
wild  in  their  present  state,  but  that  all  are  cultivated  varieties 
of  species  now  growing  in  great  abundance  in  S.  Europe  or  W. 
Asia."  On  the  other  hand,  Alph.  De  Candolle -"  has  adduced 
abundant  evidence  that  common  wheat  {Triticum  nihjftrr)  has 
been  found  wild  in  various  parts  of  Asia,  where  it  is  not  likely  to 
have  escaped  from  cultivation:  and  there  is  some  force  in  M.  Go- 
dron's  remark,  that,  supposing  these  plants  to  be  escaped  seedlings,-' 


natives  of  New  Zealand,  see  Craw- 
furd's  '  Grammar  and  Diet,  of 
the  Malay  Language,'  1852,  p. 
celx. 

1"  See,  for  example,  Mr.  Hewett 
C.  Watson's  remarks  on  our  wild 
plums  and  cherries  and  crabs: 
'  Cybele  Britannica,'  vol.  i.  pp. 
330.  ,3.34,  &c.  Van  Mens  (in  his 
'  Arbres  Frnitiers,'  1S35,  torn.  i. 
p.  444)  declares  that  he  has  found 
the  types  of  all  oiu*  ciiltivated 
varieties  in  wild  seedlings, 
but  then  he  looks  on  these 
seedlings  as  so  many  aboriginal 
storks. 

i«  See  A.  De  Candolle,  Geo- 
graph.  Bot.,'  1.S55.  p.  928  et  srq. 
Godron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  1859,  torn. 

22 


ii.  p.  70:  and  Metzgor,  '  Die  Ge- 
treidenrten,"    Ac.    1S41. 

"  Mr.  Bentham.  in  his  review, 
entitled  '  Hist.  Notes  on  cnlli- 
vated  Plants,'  by  Dr.  A.  Targlonl- 
Tozzetti,  in  *  .Journal  of  Hort. 
Soc.,'  vol.  ix.  (18.55).  p.  1.33.  He 
informs  me  thiit  he  still  retains 
the  same  opiiuon. 

-0  •  Geograph.  Bot.,'  p.  928. 
The  whoh'  snbjoct  is  discussed 
with  admirable  fulness  and  kno\vl- 
edge. 

-1  Godron,  '  De  rKsprce.'  torn. 
ii.  p.  72.  A  f»'\v  yt'.irs  ;igo  the 
excellent,  though  uiisinrorprettMl, 
ol>servations  of  M.  F;ilin*  led 
m;iny  persons  to  btdicvc  tliat 
wheat  was  a  moditied  descendant 


32i  CEREAL   PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

as  they  have  propagated  themselves  in  a  wild  state  for  several  gen- 
erations, their  continued  resemblance  to  cultivated  wheat  renders 
it  probable  that  the  latter  has  retained  its  aboriginal  character. 
But  the  strong  tendency  to  inheritance,  which  most  of  the  varie- 
ties of  wheat  evince,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  is  here  greatly  un- 
dervalued. Much  weight  must  also  be  attributed  to  a  remark  by 
Professor  Hildebrand.--  that  when  the  seeds  or  fruit  of  cultivated 
plants  possess  qualities  disadvantageous  to  them  as  a  means  of  dis- 
tribution, we  may  feel  almost  sure  that  they  no  longer  retain 
their  aboriginal  condition.  On  the  other  hand,  M.  de  Candolle  in- 
sists strongly  on  the  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Austrian  domin- 
ions of  rye  and  of  one  kind  of  oats  in  an  apparently  wild  condition. 
With  the  exception  of  these  two  eases,  which  however  are  rather 
doubtful,  and  with  the  exception  of  two  forms  of  wheat  and  one  of 
barlev,  which  he  believes  to  have  been  found  trulv  wild,  M.  De 
Candolle  does  not  seem  fully  satisfied  with  the  other  reported  dis- 
coveries of  the  parent-forms  of  our  other  cereals.  With  respect  to 
oats,  according  to  Mr.  Buckmann/^  the  wild  English  Arena  fatua 
can  be  converted  by  a  few  years  of  careful  cultivation  and  selec- 
tion into  forms  almost  identical  with  two  very  distinct  cultivated 
races.  The  whole  subject  of  the  origin  and  specific  distinctness  of 
the  various  cereal  plants  is  a  most  difficult  one:  but  we  shall  per- 
haps be  able  to  judge  a  little  better  after  considering  the  amount 
of  variation  which  wheat  has  undergone. 

Metzger  describes  seven  species  of  wheat,  Godron  refers  to  five, 
and  De  Candolle  to  only  four.  It  is  not  improbable  that,  besides 
the  kinds  known  in  Europe,  other  strongly  characterised  forms 
exist  in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  world ;  for  Loiseleur-Deslong- 
champs  -*  speaks  of  three  new  species  or  varieties,  sent  to  Europe 
in  1822  from  Chinese  ^Mongolia,  which  he  considers  as  being  there 
indigenous.  Moorcroft  -'"  also  speaks  of  Hasora  wheat  in  Ladakh 
as  very  peculiar.  If  those  botanists  are  right  who  believe  that  at 
least  seven  species  of  wheat  originally  existed,  then  the  amount 
of  variation  in  any  important  character  which  wheat  has  under- 
gone under  cultivation  has  been  sliirht;  but  if  onlv  four  or  a  lesser 
number  of  species  originally  existed,  then  it  is  evident  that  vane- 
ties  have  arisen  so  strongly  marked,  that  they  have  been  consid- 
ered by  capable  judges  as  specifically  distinct.  But  the  impossi- 
bility of  deciding  which  forms  ought  to  be  ranked  as  species  and 
which  as  varieties,  makes  it  useless  to  specify  in  detail  the  differ- 
ences between  the  various  kinds  of  wheat.     Speaking  generally,  the 

of  .^5:gilops:  but  M.   Godron  (torn.  Avith     respect     to     M.      Godron's 

i.    p.    IB."))    has   shown    liy    careful  conclusions. 

experiments  that  the  first  step  in  -'-  '  Die   Verbreitunsrsmittel   der 

the  series,  viz.  JEgilops  triticoidrs,  Pflanzen.'   1S73.    p.   129. 

is    a   hybrid   between    wheat    and  -'s  Report  to  British  Association 

^J^.    ovafa.      The    frequency    with  for  1S.">T.  p.  207. 

which  these  hybrids  spontaneous-  -*  '  Considerations    sur    les    C§- 

ly    arise,    and    the    gradual    man-  reales.'  1842-43.  p.  29. 

iier    in    which    the    .^.    triticoid-^s  -'■  '  Travels    in    the    Himalayan 

becomes      converted      into      true  Provinces,'    &c.,    1841,    vol.    i.    p. 

wheat,     alone     leave     any     doubt  224. 


Chap.  IX.  WHEAT. 


325 


organs  of  vegetation  differ  little;  -«  but  some  kinds  grow  close  and 
upright,  whilst  others  spread  and  trail  along  the  ground  The 
straw  differs  in  being  more  or  less  hollow,  and  in  qiialitv.  Tiie 
ears"  differ  in  colour  and  in  shape,  being  (luadrangular,  com- 
pressed, or  nearly  cylindrical;  and  the  florets  dillVr  i^i  their  ap- 
proximation to  each  other,  in  their  pubescence,  and  in  hi-ing  more 
or  less  elongated.  The  presence  or  absence  of  barbs  is  a  cons|7icu<)ns 
difference,  and  in  certain  Graminese  serves  even  as  a  generic;  char- 
acter; -"  although,  as  remarked  by  Godron,-"  the  presence  oi  l)arbs 
is  variable  in  certain  wild  grasses,  and  especially  in  those  such  ua 
Bronius  sccaliniis  and  Lolium  temulentum,  which  hahitually  grow 
mingled  with  our  cereal  crops,  and  which  have  thus  unintention- 
ally been  exposed  to  culture.  The  grains  differ  in  sizei  wright, 
and  colour;  in  being  more  or  less  downy  at  one  end,  in  hv'nv 
smooth  or  wrinkled,  in  being  either  nearly  globular,  oval,  or  eioii^ 
gated;  and  finally  in  internal  texture,  being  tender  or  hard,  or 
even  almost  horny,  and  in  the  proportion  of  gluten  which  they 
contain. 

Nearly  all  the  races  or  species  of  wheat  vary,  as  Godron  *'  lias 
remarked,  in  an  exactlj'^  parallel  manner, — in  the  seed  being  downy 
or  glabrous,  and  in  colour, — and  in  the  florets  being  barbed  or 
not  barbed,  &c.  Those  who  believe  that  all  the  kinds  are  descended 
from  a  single  wild  species  may  account  for  this  parallel  variation 
by  the  inheritance  of  a  similar  constitution,  and  a  consciiuent 
tendency  to  vary  in  the  same  manner;  and  those  who  believe  in 
the  general  theory  of  descent  with  modification  may  extend  this 
view  to  the  several  species  of  wheat,  if  such  ever  existed  in  a  state 
of  nature. 

Although  few  of  the  varieties  of  wheat  present  any  conspicuous 
difference,  their  number  is  great.  Dalbret  cultivated  during  thirty 
years  from  150  to  160  kinds,  and  excepting  in  the  quality  of  the 
grain  they  all  kept  true;  Colonel  Le  Couteur  possessed  upwards  of 
150,  and  Philippar  322  varieties.^^  As  wheat  is  an  annual,  we  thus 
see  how  strictly  many  trifling  differences  in  character  are  inherited 
through  many  generations.  Colonel  Le  Couteur  insists  strongly 
on  this  same  fact.  In  his  persevering  and  successful  attempts  to 
raise  new  varieties,  he  found  that  there  was  only  one  "  secure  mode 
to  ensure  the  growth  of  pure  sorts,  namely,  to  grow  them  from 
single  grains  or  from  single  ears,  and  to  follow  uj)  the  plan  by 
afterwards  sowing  only  the  produce  of  the  most  protluctivt-  so  as 
to  form  a  stock."  But  Major  Hallett^'  has  gone  much  farther, 
and  by  the  continued  selection  of  plants  from  the  grains  of  the 
same  ear,  during  successive  generations,  has  made  his  '  Pedigree  in 

2«  Col.    J.    Le    Couteur    on    the  ^i  For      Dalbret      and      IMiilip- 

•  Varieties  of  Wheat.'   pp.  2.3,  70.  par,  sec  LoisphMir-noslon-cliniiips. 

2"  Loiselenr    -    Deslongchamps,  '  Consid.  snr  les  (\"r(':ilt's.    pp.  ^-u 

'  Consid.   sur  les  Cereales,'   p.   11.  70.    J.e  Couteur  on  ^\  h»'at.  im'-  «'. 

-s  8rc    an    excellent    review    in  14-17.                                    .  ,.    ,. 

Hooker's  '  Journ.  of  Botany,'  vol.  ^2  seo  his   Essay  on      1  edi;:ro(^ 

viii.  p.  82.  note.  in  Wheat.'   1S(;2:  also  paper  rea.l 

29  '  Do  I'Espece,'  torn.  ii.  p.  73.  before    the     British     Association, 

30  Ibid.,  tom.  ii.  p.  75.  18G9,  and  other  publications. 


S2Q  CEREAL   PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

"Wheat '  (and  other  cereals)  now  famous  in  many  quarters  of  the 
Ti'orld.  The  great  amount  of  variability  in  the  plants  of  the  same 
variety  is  another  interesting  point,  which  would  never  have  been 
•detected  except  by  an  eye  long  practised  to  the  work ;  thus  Colonel 
Le  Couteur  relates  ^^  that  in  a  field  of  his  own  wheat,  which  he 
considered  at  least  as  pure  as  that  of  any  of  his  neighbours,  Pro- 
fessor La  Gasca  found  twenty-three  sorts;  and  Professor  Henslow 
has  observed  similar  facts.  Besides  such  individual  variations, 
forms  sufficiently  well  marked  to  be  valued  and  to  become  widely 
cultivated  sometimes  suddenly  appear:  thus  Mr.  Shirretf  has  had 
the  good  fortune  to  raise  in  his  lifetime  seven. new  varieties,  which 
are  now  extensively  grown  in  many  parts  of  Britain.^* 

As  in  the  case  of  many  other  plants,  some  varieties,  both  old 
and  new,  are  far  more  constant  in  character  than  others.  Colonel 
Le  Couteur  was  forced  to  reject  some  of  his  new  sub- varieties, 
which  he  suspected  had  been  produced  from  a  cross,  as  incorrigibly 
sportive.  On  the  other  hand  Major  Hallett  ^^  has  shown  how  won- 
derfully constant  some  varieties  are,  although  not  ancient  ones, 
sind  although  cultivated  in  various  countries.  With  respect  to  the 
tendency  to  vary,  Metzger^**  gives  from  his  own  experience  some 
interesting  facts:  he  describcG  three  Spanish  sub-varieties,  more 
especially  one  known  to  be  constant  in  Spain,  which  in  Germany 
assumed  their  proper  character  only  during  hot  summers:  another 
variety  kept  true  only  in  good  land,  but  after  having  been  culti- 
vated for  twentv-five  years  became  more  constant.  He  mentions 
two  other  sub-varieties  which  were  at  first  inconstant,  but  subse- 
quently became,  apparently  without  any  selection,  accustomed  to 
their  new  homes,  and  retained  their  proper  character.  These  facts 
show  what  small  changes  in  the  conditions  of  life  cause  variability, 
and  they  further  show  that  a  variety  ma}^  become  habituated  to  new 
conditions.  One  is  at  first  inclined  to  conclude  with  Loiseleur- 
Deslongchamps,  that  A^heat  cultivated  in  the  same  country  is  ex- 
posed to  remarkably  uniform  conditions:  but  manures  differ,  seed 
is  taken  from  one  soil  to  another,  and,  what  is  far  more  important, 
the  plants  are  exposed  as  little  as  possible  to  struggle  with  other 
plants,  and  are  thus  enabled  to  exist  under  diversified  conditions. 
In  a  state  of  nature  each  plant  is  confined  to  that  particular  sta- 
tion and  kind  of  nutriment  which  it  can  seize  from  the  other 
plants  by  which  it  is  surrounded. 

Wheat  quickly  assumes  new  habits  of  life.  The  summer  and 
winter  kinds  were  classed  by  Linnaeus  as  distinct  species;  but  M. 
Monnier^'   has  proved   that   the   difference  between   them  is   only 

=53  '  Varieties  of  Wlieat,'   Intro-  35  '  GarrtPiier's     Cliron.,'     Nov., 

duction,    p.    vi.      Marshall,    in   his  1868,  p.  1199. 

'  Rural    Economy    of    Yorkshire.'  ^e  '  Getreidearten,'   1841,    s.    66, 

vol.    ii.    p.    9.    remarks    that    "  in  91,  92.  116,  117. 
€very    fieUl    of    corn    there    is    as  ^7  Quoted  by  Godron,  '  De  I'Es- 

mucii    variety    as    in    a    herd    of  poce.'  vol.   ii.  p.  74.     So  it  is,  ac- 

cattle. "  cording  to  Metzger   ('  Getreidear- 

3*  '  Gardener's   Chron.   and   Ag-  ten.'  s.  18),  with  summer  and  win- 

ricultural  Gazette,'  1862,  p.  963.  ter  barley. 


Chap.  IX.  WHEAT. 


327 


temporary.  He  sowed  winter-wheat  in  spring,  and  out  of  one 
hundred  phmts  four  alone  produced  ripe  seeds;  tlu'sc  were  sown 
and  resown,  and  in  three  years  phmts  were  reared  which  ripened 
all  their  seed.  Conversely,  nearly  all  the  plants  raised  from  sum- 
mer-wheat, which  was  sown  in  autumn,  peiislied  from  frost;  but 
a  few  were  saved  and  produced  seed,  and  in  three  years  this  sum- 
mer-variety was  converted  into  a  winter-variety,  iience  it  is  not 
surprising  that  wheat  soon  becomes  to  a  certain  extent  aeelinui- 
tised,  and  that  seed  brought  from  distant  countries  and  sown  in 
Europe  vegetates  at  first,  or  even  for  a  considerable  period.**  dif- 
ferently from  our  European  varieties.  In  Canada  the  first  settlers, 
according  to  Kalm,^^  found  their  winters  too  severe  for  winter- 
wheat  brought  from  France,  and  their  summers  often  too  short  for 
summer-wheat;  and  they  thought  that  their  country  was  useless 
for  corn  crops  until  they  procured  summer-wheat  from  tlie  north- 
ern parts  of  Europe,  which  succeeded  well.  It  is  notorious  that 
the  proportion  of  gluten  differs  much  under  different  climates. 
The  weight  of  the  grain  is  also  quickly  affected  by  climate:  L(»ise- 
leur-Deslongchamps  ^'^  sowed  near  Paris  54  varieties,  obtainetl  from 
the  South  of  France  and  from  the  Black  Sea,  and  'r2  of  these 
yielded  seed  from  10  to  40  per  cent,  heavier  than  the  parent -seed. 
He  then  sent  these  heavier  grains  back  to  the  South  of  France,  but 
there  thev  immediatelv  vielded  lighter  seed. 

All  those  who  hn\e  closely  attended  to  the  subject  insist  on  the 
close  adaptation  of  numerous  varieties  of  wheat  to  various  soils 
and  climates  even  within  the  same  country;  thus  Colonel  Le  Cou- 
teur  "  says,  "  It  is  the  suitableness  of  each  sort  to  each  soil  that 
will  enable  the  farmer  to  pay  his  rent  by  sowing  one  variety, 
where  he  would  be  unable  to  do  so  by  attempting  to  grow  another 
of  a  seemingly  better  sort."  This  may  be  in  part  due  to  each 
kind  becoming  habituated  to  its  conditions  of  life,  as  ]Met7.ger  has 
shown  certainly  occurs,  but  it  is  probably  in  main  part  due  to 
innate  differences  between  the  several  varieties. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  deterioration  of  Avheat;  that  the 
quality  of  the  Hour,  size  of  gi'ain,  time  of  flowering,  and  hardness, 
may  be  modified  by  climate  and  soil,  seems  nearly  certain:  but 
that  the  whole  body  of  any  one  sub-variety  ever  becomes  changed 
into  another  and  distinct  sub- variety,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe. 
What  apparently  does  take  place,  according  to  Le  Couteur.*-  is, 

ssLoiseleur-Deslonjjchamps  'C^-  ties  of  oats,  sec  some  Interesting 

reales,'   part   ii.   p.   224.      Le   Cou-  papers  in  the  '  Hardener's  Chron. 

teiir.  p.  TO.     Manv  other  accounts  and   Ajrricult.   Gazette,*   l.s."tt».    pp. 

conld  be  added.    "  204.  219. 

29  '  Travels  in  North  America,'  *-  ■  On  the  Varieties  of  Wli.'at. 

1753-1701,   Eng.   translat.,   vol.    iii.  p.  50.     Mr.  ShirrelT.  aiid  a  liiirher 

p.  165.  antlioritv  cannot  li(>  ^'iven  C  (Janl. 

•'o  '  Cereales,'   part   ii.    pp.   179-  Cliron.     and     Af;rienlt.     Cnzette. 

183.  1802,  p.  9(i3).  says.   ••  I  liave  never 

"  '  On  the  Varieties  of  Wheat.'  seen  ffrain  whi«-li  lias  eillier  Ix-en 

Introdnct.,'  p.   vii.      See  ^^larshall,  improved  or  deKcnerated    l>.v   »•"'- 

'  Rural    Econ.    of   Yorkshire.'    vol.  tivation,     so     as     to     convey     the 

ii.   p.  9.     With   respect   to   similar  change  to  the  succeeding  crop. 
cases  of  adaptation  in  the  varie- 


328  CEREAL  PLAXTS.  Chap.  IX. 

that  some  one  sub-variety  out  of  the  many  which  may  always  be 
detected  in  the  same  field  is  more  prolific  than  the  others,  and 
gradually  supplants  the  variety  which  was  first  sown. 

With  respect  to  the  natural  crossing  of  distinct  varieties  the 
evidence  is  conflicting,  but  preponderates  against  its  frequent  oc- 
currence. Many  authors  maintain  that  impregnation  takes  place 
in  the  closed  flower,  but  I  am  sure  from  mv  o\\n  observation  that 
this  is  not  the  ease,  at  least  with  those  varieties  to  which  I  have 
attended.  But  as  I  shall  have  to  discuss  this  subject  in  another 
work,  it  may  be  here  passed  over. 

In  conclusion,  all  authors  admit  that  numerous  varieties 
of  wheat  have  arisen;  but  their  differences  are  unimportant, 
unless,  indeed,  some  of  the  so-called  species  are  ranked  as 
varieties.  Those  who  believe  that  from  four  to  seven  wild 
species  of  Triticum  originally  existed  in  nearly  the  same  con- 
dition as  at  present,  rest  their  belief  chiefly  on  the  great 
antiquity  of  the  several  forms."  It  is  an  important  fact, 
which  we  have  recently  learnt  from  the  admirable  researches 
of  Heer,**  that  the  inhabitants  of  Switzerland,  even  so  early 
as  the  Neolithic  period,  cultivated  no  less  than  ten  cereal 
plants,  namely,  five  kinds  of  wheat,  of  which  at  least  four  are 
commonly  looked  at  as  distinct  species,  three  kinds  of  barley, 
a  panicum,  and  a  setaria.  If  it  could  be  shoMm  that  at  the 
earliest  dawn  of  agriculture  five  kinds  of  wheat  and  three  of 
barley  had  been  cultivated,  we  should  of  course  be  compelled 
to  look  at  these  forms  as  distinct  species.  But,  as  Heer  has 
remarked,  agriculture  even  at  the  Xeolithic  period,  had  al- 
ready made  considerable  progress;  for,  besides  the  cereals, 
peas,  poppies,  flax,  and  apparently  apples,  were  cultivated.  It 
may  also  be  inferred,  from  one  variety  of  wheat  being  the  so- 
called  Egyptian,  and  from  what  is  known  of  the  native  coun- 
try of  the  panicum  and  setaria,  as  well  as  from  the  nature  of 
the  weeds  which  then  grew  mingled  with  the  crops,  that  the 
lake-inhabitants  either  still  kept  up  commercial  intercourse 
with  some  southern  people  or  had  originally  proceeded  as 
colonists  from  the  South. 

Loiseleur-Deslongchamps  *"  has  argued  that,  if  our  cereal 
plants  have  been  greatly  modified  by  cultivation,  the  weeds 
which  habitually  grow  mingled  with  them  would  have  been 

«  Alph.     De     Candolle,     '  Geo-  ^*  '  Pflanzen  der  Ffalilb.,'  186S. 

graph.   Bot.,'  p.  930.  *^  '  Les  Cereales,'  p.  94. 


Chap.  IX.  WHEAT. 


S'2\) 


equally  modified.  But  this  arguincnt  sh.jws  how  completely 
the  principle  of  selection  has  been  overlooked.  That  sucii 
weeds  have  not  varied,  or  at  least  do  not  vary  now  in  any 
extreme  degree,  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  II.  C."  Wats..n  and 
Professor  Asa  Gray,  as  they  inform  me;  but  who  will  iin.-ti-nd 
TO  say  that  they  do  not  vary  as  much  as  the  individual  plants 
of  the  same  sub-variety  of  wheat?  We  have  already  seen 
that  pure  varieties  of  wheat,  cultivated  in  the  same  field,  offer 
many  slight  variations,  which  can  be  selected  and  s(^parately 
propagated;  and  that  occasionally  more  strongly  pronounced 
variations  appear,  which,  as  Mr.  Shirreff  has  proved,  are 
well  worthy  of  extensive  cultivation.  Xot  until  equal  atten- 
tion be  paid  to  the  variability  and  selection  of  weeds,  can  the 
argument  from  their  constancy  under  unintentional  culture 
be  of  any  value.  In  accordance  with  the  principles  of  selec- 
tion we  can  understand  how  it  is  that  in  the  several  cultivated 
varieties  of  wheat  the  organs  of  vegetation  differ  so  little;  for 
if  a  plant  with  peculiar  leaves  appeared,  it  would  be  neglected 
unless  the  grains  of  corn  were  at  the  same  time  superior  in 
quality  or  size.  The  selection  of  seed-corn  was  strongly 
recommended*''  in  ancient  times  by  Columella  and  Celsus; 
and  as  Virgil  says, — 

"I've  seen  the  largest  seeds,  though  viow'd  with  care, 
Degenerate,  unless  th'  industrious  hand 
Did  yearly  cull  the  largest." 

But  whether  in  ancient  times  selection  was  methodically 
pursued  we  may  well  doubt,  when  we  hear  how  laborious  the 
work  has  been  found  by  Le  Couteur  and  Ilallett.  Alth(»ugh 
the  principle  of  selection  is  so  important,  yet  the  little  which 
man  has  effected,  by  incessant  efforts  *'  during  thousands  of 
years,  in  rendering  the  plants  more  productive  or  the  grains 
more  nutritious  than  they  were  in  the  time  of  the  old  Kgv])- 
tians,  would  seem  to  speak  strongly  against  its  efficacy.  But 
we  must  not  forget  that  at  each  successive  period  the  state  of 
agriculture  and  the  quantity  of  manure  sui^plied  to  the  land 
will  have  determined  the  maximum  degree  of  productiveness; 
for  it  would  be  impossible  to  cultivate  a  highly  productive 

*«  Quoted  by  Le  Couteur,  page  *^  A.   De  Candolle,    '  C.i'ojjniph. 

16.  Bot.,'  p.  i>:32. 


330  CEREAL  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

variety,  unless  the  land  contained  a  sufficient  supply  of  the 
necessary  chemical  elements. 

We  now  know  that  man  was  sufficiently  civilised  to  culti- 
vate the  ground  at  an  immensely  remote  period;  so  that 
wheat  might  have  been  improved  long  ago  up  to  that  standard 
of  excellence  which  was  possible  under  the  then  existing 
state  of  agriculture.  One  small  class  of  facts  supports  this 
view  of  the  slow  and  gradual  improvement  of  our  cereals.  In 
the  most  ancient  lake-habitations  of  Switzerland,  when  men 
employed  only  flint-tools,  the  most  extensively  cultivated 
wheat  was  a  peculiar  kind,  with  remarkably  small  ears  and 
grains.*^  "  Whilst  the  grains  of  the  modern  forms  are  in 
section  from  seven  to  eight  millimetres  in  length,  the  larger 
grains  from  the  lake-habitations  are  six,  seldom  seven,  and 
the  smaller  ones  only  four.  The  ear  is  thus  much  narrower, 
and  the  spikelets  stand  out  more  horizontally,  than  in  our 
present  forms."  So  again  with  barley,  the  most  ancient  and 
most  extensively  cultivated  kind  had  small  ears,  and  the 
grains  were  "  smaller,  shorter,  and  nearer  to  each  other,  than 
in  that  now  grown ;  without  the  husk  they  were  2 2  lines  long, 
and  scarcely  I4  broad,  whilst  those  nov/  grown  have  a  length 
of  three  lines,  and  almost  the  same  in  breadth."  *'■*  These 
small-grained  varieties  of  wheat  and  barley  are  believed  by 
Heer  to  be  the  parent-forms  of  certain  existing  allied  va- 
rieties, which  have  supplanted  their  early  progenitors. 

Heer  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  first  appearance 
and  final  disappearance  of  the  several  plants  which  were  cul- 
tivated in  greater  or  less  abundance  in  Switzerland  during 
former  successive  periods,  and  which  generally  differed  more 
or  less  from  our  existing  varieties.  The  peculiar  small-eared 
and  small-grained  wheat,  already  alluded  to,  was  the  com- 
monest kind  during  the  Stone  period;  it  lasted  down  to 
the  Helvetico-Roman  age,  and  then  became  extinct.  A  second 
kind  was  rare  at  first,  but  afterwards  became  more  frequent. 
A  third,  the  Egyptian  wheat  {T.  turgidum),  does  not  agree 
exactly  with  anj^  existing  variety,  and  was  rare  during  the 
Stone  period.     A  fourth  kind  (T.  dicoccum)  differs  from  all 

*«  O.    Heer,    '  Die   Pflanzen   der  banten,  von  Dr.  Riitimeyer,'  1861, 

Pfalilbauten,'    ISGG.      The   follow-  s.  225. 

ing   passage    is   quoted    from    Dr.  "  Heer,  quoted  by  Vogt,   '  Lec- 

Clirist,  iu  '  Die  Fauna  der  Pfalil-  tures  on  Man,'  Eng.  trans.,  p.  355. 


Chap.  IX.  MAIZE.  33^ 

known  varieties  of  this  form.  A  fifth  kind  {T.  monococcum) 
IS  known  to  have  existed  durin^r  the  Stone  period  only  by 
the  presence  of  a  single  ear.  A  sixth  kind,  the  common 
T,  spelta,  was  not  introduced  into  Switzerland  until  the 
Bronze  age.  Of  barley,  besides  the  short-eared  and  small- 
grained  kind,  two  others  were  cultivated,  one  of  which  was 
very  scarce,  and  resembled  our  present  common  //.  distich  urn. 
During  the  Bronze  age  rye  and  oats  were  introduced;  the 
oat-grains  being  somewhat  smaller  than  those  produced  by 
our  existing  varieties.  The  poppy  was  largely  cultivated 
during  the  Stone  period,  probably  for  its  oil;  but  the  variety 
which  then  existed  is  not  now  known.  A  peculiar  pea  with 
small  seeds  lasted  from  the  Stone  to  the  Bronze  age,  and  then 
became  extinct ;  whilst  a  peculiar  bean,  likewise  having  small 
seeds,  came  in  at  the  Bronze  period  and  lasted  to  the  time  of 
the  Romans.  These  details  sound  like  the  descriptions  given 
by  pal£eontologists  of  the  first  appearance,  the  increasing 
rarity,  and  final  extinction  or  modification  of  fossil  species, 
embedded  in  the  successive  stages  of  a  geological  formation. 

Finally,  every  one  must  judge  for  himself  whether  it  is 
more  probable  that  the  several  forms  of  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
and  oats  are  descended  from  between  ten  and  fifteen  species, 
most  of  which  are  now  either  unknown  or  extinct,  or  whether 
they  are  descended  from  between  four  and  eight  species,  which 
may  have  either  closely  resembled  our  present  cultivated 
forms,  or  have  been  so  widely  different  as  to  escape  identifica- 
tion. In  this  latter  case  we  must  conclude  that  man  culti- 
vated the  cereals  at  an  enormously  remote  period,  and  that  he 
formerly  practised  some  degree  of  selection,  which  in  itself 
is  not  improbable.  We  may,  perhaps,  further  believe  that, 
when  wheat  was  first  cultivated  the  ears  and  grains  increased 
quickly  in  size,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  roots  of  the  wild 
carrot  and  parsnip  are  known  to  increase  quickly  in  bulk 
under  cultivation. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn.  Zea  mai/ft. — Botanists  arc  nearly  iniani- 
mons  tliat  all  the  cultivated  kinds  belong  to  the  same  species. 
It  is  undoubtedly  ^"  of  American  origin,   and   was  grown   by   the 

^0  Sfre  Alph.  De  Candolle's  long  Xew  England,  scr  SilliniMirs 
discussion  in  his  '  Geograph.  '  Aniericuu  Journal,'  vol.  xliv. 
Bot.,'    p.    942.      With    respect    to        p.  99. 


S32 


CEREAL   PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


aborigines  throughout  the  continent  from  New  England  to  Chili. 
Its  cultivation  must  have  been  extremely  ancient,  for  Tschudi  ^^ 
describes  t\AO  kinds,  now  extinct  or  not  known  in  Peru,  which 
were  taken  from  the  tombs  apparently  prior  to  the  dynasty  of  the 
Ineas.  But  there  is  even  stronger  evidence  of  antiquity,  for  I 
found  on  the  coast  of  Peru  ^-  heads  of  maize,  together  with  eighteen 
species  of  recent  sea-shell,  embedded  in  a  beach  which  had  been 
upraised  at  least  85  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  accordance 
with  this  ancient  cultivation,  numerous  American  varieties  have 
arisen.  The  aboriginal  form  has  not  as  yet  been  discovered  in 
the  wild  state.  A  peculiar  kind,^^  in  which  the  grains,  instead  of 
being  naked,  are  concealed  by  husks  as  much  as  eleven  lines  in 
length,  has  been  stated,  but  on  insufficient  evidence,  to  grow  wild 
in  Brazil.  It  is  almost  certain  that  the  aboriginal  form  would 
have  had  its  grains  thus  protected;  ^*  but  the  seeds  of  the  Brazilian 
variety  produce,  as  I  hear  from  Professor  Asa  Gray,  and  as  is 
stated  in  two  published  accounts,  either  common  or  husked  maize; 
and  it  is  not  credible  that  a  wild  species,  when  first  cultivated, 
should  vary  so  quickly  and  in  so  great  a  degree. 

Maize  has  varied  in  an  extraordinary  and  conspicuous  manner. 
Metzger,^^  who  paid  particular  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant,  makes  twelve  races  (unter-art)  with  numerous  sub-varie- 
ties; of  the  latter  some  are  tolerably  constant,  others  quite  incon- 
stant. The  different  races  vary  in  height  from  15-18  feet  to  only 
16-18  inches,  as  in  a  dwarf  variety  described  by  Bonafous.  The 
whole  ear  is  variable  in  shape,  being  long  and  narrow,  or  short  and 
thick,  or  branched.  The  ear  in'  one  variety  is  more  than  four 
times  as  long  as  in  a  dwarf  kind.  The  seeds  are  arranged  in  the 
ear  in  from  six  to  even  twenty  rows,  or  are  placed  irregularly. 
The  seeds  are  coloured — white,  pale-yellow,  orange,  red,  violet, 
or  elegantly  streaked  with  black;  ^^  and  in  the  same  ear  there  are 
sometimes  seeds  of  two  colours.  In  a  small  collection  I  found 
that  a  single  grain  of  one  variety  nearly  equalled  in  weight  seven 
grains  of  another  variety.  The  shape  of  the  seed  varies  greatly, 
being  very  flat,  or  nearly  globular,  or  oval;  broader  than  long,  or 
longer  than  broad;  without  any  point,  or  produced  into  a  sharp 
tooth,  and  this   tooth  is   sometimes  recurved.     One  variety    (the 


51 


Pern,'      Eng. 


Travels      in 
translat.,  p.  177. 

"  '  Geolog.  Obser\ 
ica,'  1846,  p.  49. 

S3  This  maize  is  figured 
nafous'  magnificent  work, 
Nat.  du  Mais,'  1836,  PI. 
and  in  tlie  '  .Tonrnal  of 
See.,'  vol.  i.,  1846.  p.  11.5, 
an  account  is  given  of  the 
of  sowing  the  seed.  A 
Guarany  Indian,  on  seeing  this 
kind  of  maize,  told  Auguste  St. 
Hilaire  (see  De  Candolle,  '  Geo- 
^raph.  Bot.,'  p.  9ol)  that  it  grew 
"Wild  in  the  humid  forests  of  his 


on  S.  Amer- 


in  Bo- 
'  Hist, 
v.  bis, 
Hort. 
where 
result 
young 


native  land.  Mr.  Teschemacher, 
in  '  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Hist.,'  Oct. 
19th,  1842,  gives  an  account  of 
sowing  the  seed. 

=*  Moquin-Tandon.  '  Elements 
de   Teratologic.'   1841.   p.    126. 

55  •  Die  Getreidearten.'  1841,  s. 
208.  I  have  modified  a  few  of 
Metzger's  statements  in  accord- 
ance with  those  made  by  Bona- 
fous in  his  great  work,  '  Hist. 
Nat.  du  Mais,'  1836. 

56  Godron,  '  De  I'Espece,'  torn, 
ii.  p.  80;  Al.  Candolle,  ibid.,  p. 
951. 


Chap.  IX.  MAIZE. 


333 


le 


rugosa  of  Bonafous,  and  -vvliieh  is  extensively  cultivated  in  tl 
United  States  as  sweet  corn)  has  its  seeds  eiiri'oiislv  wriiikh'd,  ^mv. 
ing  to  the  whole  ear  b,  singular  appearance.  Another  vari.-ty'  (the 
cymosa  of  Bon.)  carries  its  ears  so  crowded  lt)getlier  that  it  is 
called  ma'is  a  bouquet.  The  seeds  of  some  varieties  contain  much 
glucose  instead  of  starch.  Male  liowers  sometimes  ajipear  amonghl 
the  female  flowers,  and  Mr.  J.  Scott  has  lately  obsei  ved  the  rarer 
case  of  female  flowers  on  a  true  male  panicle,  and  likewise  her- 
maphrodite flowers.^^  Azara  describes'''*  a  variety  in  Taraguav  the 
grains  of  which  are  very  tender,  and  he  states  that  several  varie- 
ties are  fitted  for  being  cooked  in  various  ways.  The  varieties  also 
differ  greatly  in  precocity,  and  have  diti'erent  powers  of  resist jnj; 
dryness  and  the  action  of  violent  wind.^'-"  Some  of  the  foreg(un<' 
differences  would  certainly  be  considered  of  specific  vahif  \vitl! 
plants  in  a  state  of  nature. 

Le  Comte  Re  states  that  the  grains  of  all  the  varieties  which  he 
cultivated  ultimately  assumed  a  yellow  colour.  But  Honafotjs '^' 
found  that  most  of  those  which  he  sowed  for  ten  consecutive  years 
kept  true  to  their  proper  tints;  and  he  adds  that  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Pyrenees  and  on  the  plains  of  Piedmont  a  white  maize*  has 
been  cultivated  for  more  than  a  century,  and  has  undergone  no 
change. 

The  tall  kinds  grown  in  southern  latitudes,  and  therefore  ex- 
posed to  great  heat,  require  from  six  to  seven  months  to  ripen  their 
seed;  whereas  the  dwarf  kinds,  grown  in  northern  and  cohler 
climates  require  only  from  three  to  four  months."^^  Peter  Kalm,*" 
who  particularly  attended  to  this  plant,  says,  that  in  the 
United  States,  in  proceeding  from  south  to  north,  the  plants  stead- 
ily diminish  in  bulk.  Seeds  brought  from  lat.  37°  in  Mrginia.  and 
sown  in  lat.  43°-44°  in  New  England,  produce  plants  which  will 
not  ripen  their  seed,  or  ripen  them  with  the  utmost  dilliculty.  So 
it  is  with  seed  carried  from  New  England  to  lat.  4.")°-47°  in  Can- 
ada. By  taking  great  care  at  tirst,  the  southern  kinds  after  some 
years'  culture  ripen  their  seed  perfectly  in  their  northern  homes, 
so  that  this  is  an  analogous  case  with  that  of  the  conveision  of 
summer  into  winter  wheat,  and  conversely.  When  tall  and  dwarf 
maize  are  planted  together,  the  dwarf  kinds  are  in  full  tlowt-r  be- 
fore the  others  have  produced  a  single  flower;  and  in  Pennsylvania 
they  ripen  their  seeds  six  weeks  earlier  than  the  tall  maize.  ^letz- 
ger  also  mentions  a  European  maize  which  rijiens  its  .seed  four 
weeks  earlier  than  another  European  kind.  With  these  facts  so 
plainly  showing  inherited  acclimatisation,  we  may  readily  believe 
Kalm!  who  states  that  in  North  America  maize  and  some  other 
plants  have  gradually  been  cultivated  further  and  further  north- 

"  '  Transact.    Bot.    Soc.   of  Ed-  "^  Metzger,    '  Getroidoarten.'   s. 

inburjj:h,'  vol.  viii.  p.  60.  200.                      ,           -    >,   ,      •    i  ,. 

5s  '  \^ovai?es     dans     I'Amerique  '-  '  Description    "f    >|;>'z«'-      "> 

Meridionale,'  tom.   i.  p.  147.  P.  Kalm,  IT.VJ.  in  '  Sw.'.lish  .\cts. 

50  Bonafous'      'Hist.      Nat.      du  vol.   iv.      T   have  consulted  an  oia 

Mais,'  p.  31  English  MS.  trauslatiou. 


60 


Ibid.,  p.  31. 


334  CULINARY  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

ward.     All  writers  agree  that  to  keep  the  varieties  of  maize  pure 
they  must  be  planted  separately  so  that  they  shall  not  cross. 

The  eifects  of  the  climate  of  Europe  on  the  American  varieties 
is  highly  remarkable.  Metzger  obtained  seed  from  various  parts 
of  America,  and  cultivated  several  kinds  in  Germany.  I  will  give  an 
abstract  of  the  changes  observed  "^  in  one  case,  namely,  with  a  tall 
kind  (Breit-korniger  mais,  Zea  altissima)  brought  from  the  warm- 
er parts  of  America.  During  the  first  year  the  plants  were  twelve 
feet  high,  and  a  few  seeds  were  perfected;  the  lower  seeds  in  the 
ear  kept  true  to  their  proper  form,  but  the  upper  seeds  became 
slightly  changed.  In  the  second  generation  the  plants  were  from 
nine  to  ten  feet  in  height,  and  ripened  their  seed  better;  the  de- 
pression on  the  outer  side  of  the  seed  had  almost  disappeared,  and 
the  original  beautiful  white  colour  had  become  duskier.  Some  of 
the  seeds  had  even  become  yellow,  and  in  their  now  rounded  form 
they  approached  common  European  maize.  In  the  third  genera- 
tion nearly  all  resemblance  to  the  original  and  very  distinct  Ameri- 
can parent-form  was  lost.  In  the  sixth  generation  this  maize  per- 
fectly resembled  a  European  variety,  described  as  the  second  sub- 
variety  of  the  fifth  race.  When  Metzger  published  his  book,  this 
variety  was  still  cultivated  near  Heidelberg,  and  could  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  common  kind  only  by  a  somewhat  more  vig- 
orous growth.  Analogous  results  were  obtained  by  the  cultivation 
of  another  American  race,  the  "  white-tooth  corn,"  in  which  the 
tooth  nearly  disappeared  even  in  the  second  generation.  A  third 
race,  the  "  chicken-corn,"  did  not  undergo  so  great  a  change,  but 
the  seeds  became  less  polished  and  pellucid.  In  the  above  cases  the 
seeds  were  carried  from  a  warm  to  a  colder  climate.  But  Fritz 
IMiiller  informs  me  that  a  dwarf  variety  with  small  rounded  seeds 
(papa-gaien-mais),  introduced  from  Germany  into  S.  Brazil,  pro- 
duces plants  as  tall,  with  seeds  as  flat,  as  those  of  the  kind  com- 
monly cultivated  there. 

These  facts  afford  the  most  remarkable  instance  known  to 
me  of  the  direct  and  prompt  action  of  climate  on  a  plant. 
It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  tallness  of  the  stem, 
the  period  of  vegetation,  and  the  ripening  of  the  seed,  would 
have  been  thus  affected ;  but  it  is  a  much  more  surprising 
fact  that  the  seeds  should  have  undergone  so  rapid  and  great 
a  change.  As,  however,  flowers,  with  their  product  the  seed, 
are  formed  by  the  metamorphosis  of  the  stem  and  leaves,  any 
modification  in  these  latter  organs  would  be  apt  to  extend, 
through  correlation,  to  the  organs  of  fructification. 

Cahhage  (Brnssica  oleracea). — Every  one  knows  how  greatly 
the  various  kinds  of  cabbage  differ  in  appearance.     In  the  Island 

"  '  Getreidearten,'  s.  208. 


Chap.  IX.  CABBAGES.  oo- 

Of  Jersey,  from  the  eflFeets  of  particular  cult.iro  and  of  clinuito  a 
stalk  has  gTown  to  the  height  of  sixteen  feet,  and  "  had  its  s,,ri'n  . 
shoots  at  the  top  occupied  by  a  magpie's  nest:  "  the  woodv  .Umus 
are  not  untrequently  tiom  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  height,  and  are 
there  used  as  rafters-  and  as  walking-sticks.  We  are  thus  re 
minded  tliat  in  certain  countries  plants  beh^nging  to  the  generally 
herbaceous  order  of  the  Cruciferse  are  developed  into  trees  Kvei  v 
one  can  appreciate  the  diflerence  between  green  or  redcablm-eH 
with  great  single  heads;  Brussel-sprouts  with  nuineroirs  litlle 
heads;  broccohs  and  cauliflowers  with  the  greater  number  of  their 
flowers  m  an  aborted  condition,  incapable  of  producing  seed  and 
borne  m  a  dense  corymb  instead  of  an  open  panicle-  ^^ivovs'with 
their  blistered  and  wrinkled  leaves;  and  borecoles  and  kails  which 
come  nearest  to  the  wild  parent-form.  There  are  also  various 
frizzled  and  laciniated  kinds,  some  of  such  beautiful  colours  that 
Vilmonn  m  his  Catalogue  of  1851  enumerates  ten  varieties  which 
are  valued  solely  for  ornament.  Some  kinds  are  less  coininonlv 
known,  such  as  the  Portuguese  Couve  Tronchuda,  with  the  ribs  of 
its  leaves  greatly  thickened;  and  the  Kohlrabi  or  choux-raves, 
with  their  stems  enlarged  into  great  turnip-like  masses  above  the 
ground;  and  the  recently  formed  new  race'''  of  the  choux-raves, 
already  including  nine  sub-varieties,  in  which  the  enlarged  part 
lies  beneath  the  ground  like  a  turnip. 

Although  w^e  see  such  great  differences  in  the  shape,  size,  colour, 
arrangement,  and  manner  of  growth  of  the  leaves  and  stem,  and 
of  the 'flower-stems  in  the  broccoli  and  cauliflower,  it  is  remark- 
able that  the  flowers  themselves,  the  seed-pods  and  seeds,  present 
extremely  slight  differences  or  none  at  all."''  I  compared  tlie  flow- 
ers of  all  the  principal  kinds;  those  of  the  Couve  Tronchuda  are 
white  and  rather  smaller  than  in  common  cabbages:  those  of  the 
Portsmouth  broccoli  have  narrower  sepals,  and  smaller,  less  elon- 
gated petals;  and  in  no  other  cabbage  could  an^'  diflerence  l)e  de- 
tected. With  respect  to  the  seed-pods,  in  the  purjjle  Kohlrabi 
alone,  do  they  differ,  being  a  little  longer  and  narrower  than  usual. 
T  made  a  collection  of  the  seeds  of  twenty-eiglit  din'erent  kinds, 
and  most  of  them  were  undistinguishable:  wlicn  tlicre  was  any 
difference  it  was  excessively  slight:  thus,  the  seeds  of  various  broc- 
colis  and  cauliflowers,  when  seen  in  mass,  are  a  little  redder:  those 
of  the  earlv  green  Ulm  savov  are  rather  smaller:  and  those  of  the 
Breda  kail  slightly  larger  than  usual,  but  not  larger  than  the  seeils 
of  the  wild  cabbage  from  the  coast  of  Wales.  What  a  contrast  in 
the  amount  of  difference  is  presented  if,  on  the  one  hand,  we  com- 
pare the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  various  kinds  of  cabbngc  with 
their  flowers,  pods,  and   seeds,  and  on  the  other  hand   the  corre- 

«*  '  Cabbage      Timber,'       '  Gar-  d'Horticnlture,'      isr..'..      p.      'jr.4. 

dener's     Chron.,'     1856,      p.     744,  quoted    from    '  GartonUoni,'     Ap. 

quoted  from  Hooker's  '  Joiu-nal  of  1855. 

Botany.'      A    walkins^^-stick    made  e"  Qodron.    '  De  rEspi^co.'   toni. 

from  a  cabliajre-stalk  is  exhibited  ii.  p.  5:  Metz-rer.  '  Syst.  HfscJirt'i- 

in  ttie  Museum  at  Kew.  buug  der   Kult.    Kohlartt'ii,"    1X53 

^^  '  Journal    de    la    Soc.     Imp.  s.  6. 


336  CULIXARY   PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

spending  parts  in  the  varieties  of  maize  and  wheat!  The  ex- 
phmation  is  obvious;  the  seeds  alone  are  valued  in  our  cereals, 
and  their  variations  have  been  selected;  whereas  the  seeds,  seed- 
pods,  and  flowers  have  been  utterly  neglected  in  the  cabbage, 
whilst  many  useful  variations  in  their  leaves  and  stems  have  been 
noticed  and  preserved  from  an  extremely  remote  period,  for  cab- 
bages were  cultivated  by  the  old  Celts." 

It  would  be  useless  to  give  a  classified  description  "^^  of  the 
numerous  races,  sub-races,  and  varieties  of  the  cabbage;  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  Dr.  Lindley  has  lately  proposed  "'^  a  system 
founded  on  the  state  of  development  of  the  terminal  and  lateral 
leaf-buds.  Thus:  I.  All  the  leaf-buds  active  and  open,  as  in  the 
Avild-cabbage,  kail,  &c.  11.  All  the  leaf-buds  active,  but  forming 
heads,  as  in  Brussel-sprouts,  &e.  III.  Terminal  leaf-bud  alone  ac- 
tive, forming  a  head  as  in  common  cabbages,  savoys,  &c.  TV. 
Terminal  leaf-bud  alone  active,  and  open,  with  most  of  the  flowers 
abortive  and  succulent,  as  in  the  cauliflower  and  broccoli.  V.  All 
the  leaf-buds  active  and  open,  with  most  of  the  flowers  abortive 
and  succulent,  as  in  the  sprouting-broccoli.  This  latter  variety  is 
a  new  one,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to  common  broccoli,  as 
Brussel-sprouts  do  to  common  cabbages;  it  suddenly  appeared  in 
a  bed  of  common  broccoli,  and  was  found  faithfully  to  transmit 
its  newly-acquired  and  remarkable  characters. 

The  principal  kinds  of  cabbage  existed  at  least  as  early  as  the 
sixteenth  centurv,''^  so  that  numerous  modifications  of  structure 
have  been  inherited  for  a  long  period.  This  fact  is  the  more  re- 
markable as  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  crossing  of 
the  difterent  kinds.  To  give  proof  of  this:  I  raised  233  seedlings 
from  cabbages  of  different  kinds,  which  had  purposely  been  plant- 
ed near  each  other,  and  of  the  seedlings  no  less  than  155  were 
plainly  deteriorated  and  mongrelized;  nor  were  the  remaining  78 
all  perfectly  true.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  many  permanent 
varieties  have  been  formed  by  intentional  or  accidental  crosses; 
for  such  crossed  plants  are  found  to  be  very  inconstant.  One 
kind,  however,  called  "  Cottager's  Kail,"  has  lately  been  produced 
by  crossing  common  kail  and  Brussel-sprouts,  recrossed  with  pur- 
ple broccoli  '^  and  is  said  to  be  true :  but  plants  raised  by  me 
were  not  nearly  so  constant  in  character  as  any  common  kind  of 
cabbage. 

Although  most  of  the  kinds  keep   true  if  carefully  preserved  ' 
from  crossing,  vet  the  seed-beds  must  be  vearlv  examined,  and  a 
few  seedlings  are  generally  found  false:   but  even  in  this  ease  the 
force  of  inheritance  is  shown,  for,  as  Metzger  has  remarked  '"  Avhen 
speaking  of  Brussel-sprouts,  the  variations  generally  keep  to  their 

"  Regnier,       '  De      I'Economie  '^^  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1859, 

Pnblique   des   Celtes,'    1818,    page  p.   092. 

438.  '0  Alph.     De     Candolle,     '  Geo- 

^^  See  the  elder  De  Candolle.  in  graph.   Bot.,'  pp.  842  and  989. 

'  Transact.  Horticiiltnval  Society.'  "^  '  Gardener's     Chron.,'     Feb., 

vol.    v. .    and    Metzger,     '  Kohlar-  18r)8,  p.  128. 

ten,'   &c.  "  '  Kohlarten,'  s.  22. 


Chap.  IX.  CABBAGES, 


337 


"unter  art,"  or  main  race,  liut  in  order  tluit  anv  kind  may  be 
truly  propagated  there  must  be  no  great  cliange  in  I  In-  cou.lifif.ns 
of  life;  thus  cabbages  Mill  not  form  heads  in  hot  couiilries,  un.l 
the  same  thing  has  been  observed  with  an  Knulisli  variety  grown 
during  an  extremely  warm  and  damp  autumn  near  Paris,'*  Kx- 
tremely  poor  soil  also  afleots  the  characters  of  certain  varieties. 

Most  authors  believe  that  all  the  races  are  descended  fr(»in  the 
wild  cabbage  found  on  the  western  shores  of  Europe;  but  Alpli. 
De  Candolle  '*  forcibly  argues,  on  historical  and  othi'r  grounds^ 
that  it  is  more  probable  that  two  or  three  chjsely  allied  fiuins*^ 
generally  ranked  as  distinct  species,  still  living  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean region,  are  the  parents,  now  all  commingled  together,  of  the 
various  cultivated  kinds.  In  the  same  maimer  as  we  have  oftj-n 
seen  with  domesticated  animals,  the  supposed  multiple  origin  of  the 
cabbage  throws  no  light  on  the  characteristic  dillereiices  between 
the  cultivated  forms.  If  our  cabbages  are  the  descendants  of  three 
or  four  distinct  species,  every  trace  of  any  sterility  which  may 
originally  have  existed  between  them  is  now  lost,  foV  none  of  the 
varieties  can  be  kept  distinct  without  scrupulous  care  to  prevent 
intercrossing. 

The  other  cultivated  forms  of  the  genus  13rassica  are  descended, 
according  to  the  view  adopted  by  Godron  and  ]\let7.ger,''  from  two 
species,  B.  napiis  and  rapa;  but  according  to  other  botanists  from 
three  species;  whilst  others  again  strongly  suspect  that  all  these 
forms,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  ought  to  be  ranked  as  a  single 
species.  Brass  ten  napvs  has  given  rise  to  two  large  groups,  name- 
ly, Swedish  turnips  (believed  to  be  of  hybrid  origin)  '"  and  Colzas,, 
the  seeds  of  which  yield  oil.  Brassica  rupa  (of  Koch)  has  also 
given  rise  to  two  races,  namely,  common  turnips  and  the  oil-giving 
rape.  The  evidence  is  unusually  clear  that  these  latter  plants, 
though  so  different  in  external  appearance,  belong  to  the  same 
species;  for  the  turnip  has  been  observed  by  Koch  and  Godron  to 
lose  its  thick  roots  in  uncultivated  soil;  and  when  \-,\\)q  and  tur- 
nips are  sown  together  they  cross  to  such  a  degree  that  scarcely 
a  single  plant  comes  true.'^  ]\Ietzger  by  culture  converted  the 
biennial  or  winter  rape  into  the  annual  or  summer  rape. — varie- 
ties which  have  been  thought  by  some  authors  to  be  specifically 
distinct.'** 

In  the  production  of  large,  fleshy,  turnip-like  stems,  we  have 
a  case  of  analogous  variation  in  three  forms  which  are  generally 
considered  as  distinct  species.    But  scarcely  any  modification  seems 

"Godron.    '  De   I'Espcce.'   torn.  planted   a    vari«>ty  of  caltliM^re   (/>. 

ii.    p.    52;    Metzger,    '  Kohlarten,'  oZ'rarrfl)  close  to  turnips  («    ra/nU 

s.   22.  and  raised  from  the  crossed  sced- 

74  <■  (^^(j^rj-aph.   Bot..'  p.  S40.  linirs  true  Swedish  t\n-iiii)s.    Tlu'se 

■^5  Godron.    '  De   I'Espr.co.'   torn.  latter  plants  oti^^ht.    tlicn-fore.   to 

ii.    p.    54;    Metzger.     'Kohlarten,'  be  classed   with   cal.hagcs  or  tiif. 

s.   10.  nips,  ;nid  not  under  H.   nnintx. 

^"'Gardener's   t'hvon.    and    Atr-  "'Gardener's   Clirou.   :ind    Ajj. 

ricult.  Gazette,'  1856.  p.  729.     Sec  ricult.   (Jazette.'  IS.").-.,  p.   .:{(».     _ 
more    especially,     ibid..     1808,     p.  '"  Metzger,    *  Kohlarten,     s.   .>i. 

275:    the    writer   asserts   that   he 


338 


CULIXARY   PLANTS. 


Chap.  IX. 


so  easily  acquired  as  a  succulent  enlargement  of  the  stem  or  root — 
that  is,  a  store  of  nutriment  laid  up  for  the  plant's  own  future  use. 
We  see  this  in  our  radishes,  beet,  and  in  the  less  generally  known 
"  turnip-rooted  "  celery,  and  in  the  finoechio,  or  Italian  variety  of 
the  common  fennel.  ^Ir.  Buekman  has  lately  proved  b^'  his  inter- 
esting experiments  how  quickly  the  roots  of  the  wild  parsnip  can 
be  enlarged,  as  ^'ilmorin  foimerly  proved  in  the  case  of  the  carrot.'" 

This  latter  plant,  in  its  cultivated  state,  diflers  in  scarcely  any 
character  from  the  wild  English  carrot,  except  in  general  luxuri- 
ance and  in  the  size  and  quality  of  its  roots;  but  ten  varieties, 
differing  in  the  colour,  shape,  and  quality  of  the  root,  are  culti- 
vated in  England  and  come  true  by  seed.*°  Hence  with  the  carrot, 
as  in  so  many  other  cases,  for  instance  with  the  numerous  varieties 
and  sub-varieties  of  the  radish,  that  part  of  the  plant  which  is 
valued  by  man,  falsely  appears  alone  to  have  varied.  The  truth 
is  that  variations  in  this  part  alone  have  been  selected;  and  the 
seedlings  inheriting  a  tendency  to  vary  in  the  same  way,  analo- 
gous modifications  have  been  again  and  again  selected,  until  at 
last  a  great  amount  of  change  has  been  effected. 

With  respect  to  the  radish,  M.  Carriere,  by  sowing  the  seed  of 
the  wild  Raplianus  raphanistntm  in  rich  soil,  and  by  continued 
selection  during  several  generations,  raised  many  varieties,  closely 
like  the  cultivated  radish  {R.  sativus)  in  their  roots,  as  well  as  the 
wonderful  Chinese  variety,  R.  caudatus:  (see  'Journal  d'Agricul- 
ture  pratique,'  t.  i.,  1869,  p.  159;  also  a  separate  essay,  '  Origine 
des  Plants  Domestiques,'  1869).  Raphaniis  raphruii strum  and 
satinis  have  often  been  ranked  as  distinct  species,  and  owing  to 
differences  in  their  fruit  even  as  distinct  genera;  but  Professor 
Hoffmann  ('Bot.  Zeitung,'  1872,  p.  482)  has  now  shown  that  these 
differences,  remarkable  as  they  are,  graduate  away,  the  fruit  of 
R.  caudatus  being  intermediate.  By  cultivating  R.  raphanistrum 
during  several  generations  (ibid.,  1873,  p.  9),  Professor  Hoffmann 
also  obtained  plants  bearing  fruits  like  those  of  R.  sativus. 

Pea  {Pisum  s<itivvju). — Most  botanists  look  at  the  garden-pea 
as  specifically  distinct  from  the  field-pea  (P.  arvense).  The  latter 
exists  in  a  wild  state  in  Southern  Europe;  but  the  aboriginal 
parent  of  the  garden-pea  has  been  found  by  one  collector  alone, 
as  he  states,  in  the  Crimea.*^     Andrew  Knight  crossed,  as  I  am 


''^  These  experiments  by  Vil- 
morin  have  been  quoted  by  many 
writers.  An  eminent  botanist. 
Prof.  Decaisne,  has  lately  ex- 
pressed doubts  on  the  subject 
from  his  own  negrative  results, 
but  these  cannot  be  valued  equal- 
ly with  positive  results.  On  the 
other  hand.  M.  Carriere  has  late- 
ly stated  ('  Gard.  rhronicle,'  ISO.', 
p.  1154),  that  he  took  seed  from 
a  wild  carrot,  .srowins  far  from 
any  cultivated  land,  and  even  in 
the  first  generation  the  roots  of 
his    seedliuirs    differed    in    beiuji" 


spindle-shaped,  loncrer.  softer, 
and  less  fibrous  than  those  of  the 
wild  plant.  From  these  seedlings 
he  raised  several  distinct  varie- 
ties. 

so  Loudon's  '  Encyclop.  of  Gar- 
deninsr."  p.  83.5. 

*i  Alph.  De  Candolle,  '  Geo- 
graph.  Bot..'  OfiO.  Mr.  Bentham 
(•  Hoi-t.  Journal,'  vol.  ix.  (1855) 
p.  141)  believes  that  garden  and 
field  peas  belong  to  the  same  spe- 
cies and  in  this  respect  he  differs 
from  Dr.  Targioni. 


Chap.  IX.  PEAS.  33^ 

informed  by  the  Rev.  A.  Fitch,  the  fiold-pea  with  a  well-knr.wn 
garden  variety,  the  Prussian  pea,  and  the  cross  seems  to  have  been 
perfectly  fertile.  Dr.  Alefeld  has  recently  studied-^  the  uenua 
with  care,  and,  after  having  cultivated  about  fifty  varieties  con- 
cludes that  certainly  they  all  belong  to  the  same  spcc-ii-s.  It 'is  an 
interesting  fact  already  alluded  to,  that,  according  to  O.  llccr"* 
the  peas  found  in  the  lake-habitations  of  Switzerlaml  of  tiie  Stone 
and  Bronze  ages,  belong  to  an  extinct  variety,  with  exceedinglv 
small  seeds,  allied  to  P.  arvense  or  the  field-pea.  The  varicties^'df 
the  common  garden-pea  are  numerous,  and  dilVcr  consideraljlv 
from  one  another.  For  comparison  I  planted  at  the  same  time 
forty-one,  English  and  French  varieties.  They  dilTered  «M-eatlv  in 
height,— namely  from  between  G  and  12  inches  to  K  feet,"*— in 
manner  of  growth,  and  in  period  of  maturity.  Some  diU'cr  in  gen- 
eral aspect  even  while  only  two  or  three  inches  in  height.  The 
stems  of  the  Prussuin  pea  are  much  branched.  The  tall  kinds 
have  larger  leaves  than  the  dwarf  kinds,  but  not  in  strict  propor- 
tion to  their  height: — Hair's  Dwarf  Monmouth  has  very  large 
leaves,  and  the  Pais  nain  hatif,  and  the  moderately  tall  Hliic 
Pt'iissian,  have  leaves  about  two-thirds  of  the  size  of  tlic  tallest 
kind.  In  the  Danccroft  the  leaflets  are  rather  small  and  a  little 
pointed;  in  the  Queen  of  Dwarfs  rather  rounded;  and  in  the 
Queen  of  England  broad  and  large.  In  these  three  peas  the  slight 
differences  in  the  shape  of  the  leaves  are  accompanied  by  slight 
differences  in  colour.  In  the  Pois  gcant  sans  parcJwniiii,  which 
bears  purple  flowers,  the  leaflets  in  the  young  plant  are  edged 
with  red;  and  in  all  the  peas  with  purple  flowers  the  stipules  are 
marked  with  red. 

In  the  difFerent  varieties,  one,  two,  or  several  flowers  in  a  small 
cluster,  are  borne  on  the  same  peduncle;  and  this  is  a  difference 
which  is  considered  of  specific  value  in  some  of  the  Leguminosoe. 
In  all  the  varieties  the  flowers  closely  resemble  each  other  except 
in  colour  and  size.  They  are  generally  white,  sometimes  purple, 
but  the  colour  is  inconstant  even  in  the  same  variety.  In  War- 
ner's Emperor,  which  is  a  tall  kind,  the  flowers  are  nearly  double 
the  size  of  the  Pois  nain  hatif;  but  Hair's  Dwarf  Monmouth, 
which  has  large  leaves,  likewise  has  large  flowers.  The  calyx  in 
the  Victoria  Marrow  is  large,  and  in  Bishop's  Long  Pod  the  sepals 
are  rather  narrow\  In  no  other  kind  is  there  any  difference  in  the 
flower. 

The  pods  and  seeds,  which  with  natural  species  afford  such 
constant  characters,  differ  greatly  in  the  cultivated  varieties  of  the 
pea;  and  these  are  the  valuable,  and  consequently  the  selected 
parts.  Sugar  peas,  or  Pois  sans  parchemin.  aie  remarkable  from 
their  thin  pods,  which,  whilst  young,  are  cooked  and  eaten  whole; 

82  '  Botanische    Zeitung,'    1860,  attains   this   heitrlit.    as   is   stated 
s.  204  bv     Mr.     Gordon     in     '  Transact. 

83  '  Die  Pflanzen  der  Pfahlbau-  Hort.    SoC    (2nd    series),    vol.    I 
ten.'  1SG6.  s.  23.  (1835)  p.  374.  from  wliicb  paper  I 

8* A  variety  called  the  Rounciva       have  talien  some  facts. 

23 


340  CULINARY  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX 

and  in  this  group,  whieli,  according  to  Mr.  Gordon,  includes  eleven 
sub-varieties,  it  is  the  pod  ^^■hich  differs  most;  thus  Lewis's  Seyro- 
podded  pea  has  a  straight,  broad,  smooth,  and  dark-purple  pod, 
with  the  husk  not  so  thin  as  in  the  other  kinds;  the  pod  of  an- 
other variety  is  extremely  bowed;  that  of  the  Pais  (jcunt  is  much 
pointed  at  the  extremity;  and  in  the  variety  "d  y rands  cosses" 
the  peas  are  seen  through  the  husk  in  so  conspicuous  a  manner 
that  the  pod,  especially  when  dry,  can  hardly  at  first  be  recognised 
as  that  of  a  pea. 

In  the  ordinary  varieties  the  pods  also  differ  much  in  size: — 
in  colour,  that  of  Woodford's  Green  Marrow  being  bright-green 
when  dry,  instead  of  pale  brown,  and  that  of  the  purple-podded 
pea  being  expressed  by  its  name; — in  smoothness,  that  of  Dane- 
croft  being  remarkably  glossy,  whereas  that  of  the  ISte  plus  ultra 
is  rugfoed;  in  being  either  nearlv  cvlindrical,  or  broad  and  flat; — 
in  being  pointed  at  the  end,  as  in  Thurston's  Reliance,  or  much 
truncated,  as  in  the  American  Dwarf.  In  the  Aiiveryne  pea  the 
whole  end  of  the  pod  is  bowed  upwards.  In  the  Queen  of  the 
Dwarfs  and  in  Scimitar  peas  the  pod  is  almost  elliptic  in  shape. 
I  here  give  drawings  of  the  four  most  distinct  pods  produced  by 
the  plants  cultivated  by  me. 

In  the  pea  itself  we  have  every  tint  between  almost  pure  white, 
brown,  yellow,  and  intense  green;  in  the  varieties  of  the  suyar 
peas  we  have  these  same  tints,  together  with  red  passing  through 
fine  purple  into  a  dark  chocolate  tint.  These  colours  are  either 
uniform  or  distributed  in  dots,  strise,  or  moss-like  marks;  they 
depend  in  some  cases  on  the  colour  of  the  cotyledons  seen  through 
the  skin,  and  in  other  cases  on  the  outer  coats  of  the  pea  itself. 
In  the  different  varieties,  the  pods  contain,  according  to  Mr.  Gor- 
don, from  eleven  or  twelve  to  only  four  or  five  peas.  The  largest 
peas  are  nearly  twice  as  much  in  diameter  as  the  smallest;  and  the 
latter  are  not  alwavs  borne  bv  the  most  dwarfed  kinds.  Peas  dif- 
fer  much  in  shape,  being  smooth  and  spherical,  smooth  and  oblong, 
nearly  oval  in  the  Queen  of  the  Dwarfs,  and  nearly  cubical  and 
crumpled  in  many  of  the  larger  kinds. 

With  respect  to  the  value  of  the  differences  between  the  chief 
varieties,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  if  one  of  the  tall  Sugar-peas, 
with  purple  flowers,  thin-skinned  pods  of  an  extraordinary  shape, 
including  large,  dark-purple  peas,  grew  wild  by  the  side  of  the 
lowly  Queen  of  the  Dwarfs,  with  white  flowers,  greyish-green, 
rounded  leaves,  scimitar-like  pods,  containing  oblong,  smooth, 
pale-coloured  peas,  which  became  mature  at  a  different  season: 
or  by  the  side  of  one  of  the  gigantic  sorts,  like  the  Champion  of 
England,  with  leaves  of  great  size,  pointed  pods,  and  large,  green, 
crumpled,  almost  cubical  peas, — all  three  kinds  would  be  ranked 
as  distinct  species. 

Andrew  Knight  ^^  has  observed  that  the  varieties  of  peas  keep 
very  true,  because  they  are  not  crossed  by  insects.     As  far  as  the 

85  «  Phil.   Tract.,   1799,   p.   196. 


Chap.  IX. 


PEAS. 


341 


fact  of  keeping  true  is  concerned,  I  hear  from  Mr.  Musters  of 
Canterbury,  well  known  as  the  orioinator  .,f  .several  new  kinds 
that  certain  varieties  have  remained  constant  for  a  c.,nsi<l,.nible 
time,-for  instance  lumjlifs  Blue  Duarf,  which  came  .ml  about 
the  year  1820.-  But  the  greater  number  of  varieties  liave  a  sin- 
^-  II.  Ill  jV. 


a  b 

Fig.  41.^ — Pods  and  Peas.  I.  Queen  of  Dwarfs.  II.  American  Dwarf.  III. 
Thurston's  Reliance.  IV.  Pois  Geant  sans  parcheniin.  a  Dan 
O'Rourke  Pea.  b.  Queen  of  Dwarfs  Pea.  c  Knight'.s  Tall  White 
Marrow,     d.  Lewis's  Negro  Pea. 

gularly  short  existence:   thus  Loudon  remarks"  that  "sorts  which 
were  highly  approved  in  1821,  are  now,  in  1833,  nowhere  to  be 

8<5  '  Gardener's   Magazine,'    vol.  "  '  Encyclopaidia     of     Garden- 

i.,  1826,  p.  153.  ing,'  p.  823. 


342  CULINARY  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

found;  "  and  on  comparing  the  lists  of  1833  with  those  of  1855, 
I  find  that  nearly  all  the  varieties  have  changed.  Mr.  Masters 
informs  me  that  the  nature  of  the  soil  causes  some  varieties  to  lose 
their  character.  As  with  other  plants,  certain  varieties  can  be 
propagated  truly,  whilst  others  show  a  determined  tendencv  to 
vary;  thus  two  peas  differing  in  shape,  one  round  and  the  otlier 
wrinkled,  were  found  by  Mr.  Masters  within  the  same  pod,  but  the 
plants  raised  from  the  wrinkled  kind  always  evinced  a  strong 
tendency  to  produce  round  peas.  Mr.  Masters  also  raised  from  a 
plant  of  another  variety  four  distinct  sub-varieties,  which  bore  blue 
and  round,  white  and  round,  blue  and  wrinkled,  and  white  and 
wrinkled  peas;  and  although  he  sowed  these  four  varieties  sepa- 
rately during  several  successive  years,  each  kind  always  reproduced 
all  four  kinds  mixed  together! 

With    respect    to    the    varieties    not    naturally    intercrossing,    1 
have  ascertained  that  the  pea,  wliich  in  this  respect  differs  from 
some  other  Leguminosae,  is  perfectly  fertile  without  tlie  aid  of  in- 
sects.    Yet  I  have  seen  humble-bees  whilst  sucking  the  nectar  de- 
press the  keel-petals,  and   become  so  thickly  dusted   with  pollen, 
that  it  could  hardly  fail  to  be  left  on  the  stigma  of  the  next  flower 
which  was  visited.     Nevertheless,  distinct  varieties  growing  closely 
together  rarely  cross;  and  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  this  is  due 
to  their  stigmas  being  prematurely  fertilised   in  this  country   by 
pollen  from  the  same  flower.     The  horticulturists  who  raise  seed- 
peas   are   thus   enabled   to   plant   distinct   varieties   close    together 
without  any  bad  consequences;   and  it  is  certain,  as  I  have  myself 
found,  that  true  seed  may  be  saved  during  at  least  several  genera- 
tions under  these  circumstances.*®     Mr.  Fitch  raised,  as  he  informs 
me,  one  variety  for  twenty  years,  and  it  always  came  true,  though 
grown  close  to  other  varieties.     From  the  analogy  of  kidney-beans 
I  should  have  expected  *"  that  varieties  thus  circumstanced*^  would 
have  occasionally  crossed;   and  I  shall  give  in  the  eleventh  chapter 
two  cases  of  this  having  occurred,  as  shown  (in  a  manner  hereafter 
to  be  explained)  by  the  pollen  of  the  one  variety  having  acted  di- 
rectly on  the  seeds  of  the  other.     Whether  many  of  the  new  varie- 
ties which  incessantly  appear  are  due  to  such  occasional  and  acci- 
dental crosses,  I  do  not  know.     Nor  do  I  know  whether  the  short 
existence  of  almost  all  the  numerous  varieties  is  the  result  of  more 
change  of  fashion,  or  of  their  having  a  weak  constitution,   from 
being    the    product    of    long-continued    self-fertilisation.     It    may, 
however,   be   noticed   that   several   of  Andrew   Knight's   varieties, 
which  have  endured  longer  than  most  kinds,  were  raised  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century  by  artificial  crosses;   some  of  them,  I 
believe,  were  still  vigorous  in   1860;  but  now,  in  1865,  a  writer, 
speaking  ^°  of  Knight's  four  kinds  of  marrows,  says,  they  have  ac- 
quired a  famous  history,  but  their  glory  has  departed. 

«s  sfpg  Y)v.  Anderson  to  the  same  the  '  Gardener's  Chronicle  '  1857, 

effect  m  the  '  Bath   Soe.   Asrricul-  Oct.   2.5. 
tural   Papers,'   vol.   iv.   p.   87.  oo  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1865, 

«9  I  have  published  full  details  p.  387. 
of  experiments  on  this  subject  in 


Chap.  IX. 


POTATOES. 


343 


With  respect  to  beans  {Faha  vulgaris),  I  will  say  but  little. 
Dr.  Alefeld  has  gu-^n  -  short  diacrnostie  characlPrs  ..f  fortv  varie- 
ties Every  one  who  has  seen  a  collection  luusl  luive  Lecil  struck 
with  the  great  diflference  in  shape,  thickness,  pn)porti..,.al  l.-nulh 
and  breadth,  colour,  and  size  which  beans  present  \\-liat  u  t-oii- 
trast  between  a  Windsor  and  Horse-bean!  As  in  the  cjim.  „f  i|,e 
pea,  our  existing  varieties  were  preceded  during  the  Hn>n/.e  a-e  in 
Swatzerland ''^  by  a  peculiar  and  now  extinct  variety  producintr 
very  small  beans.®^  ** 

Potato  {tiolamim  tuberosum) .—There  is  little  doubt  about  the 
parentage  of  this  plant;  for  the  cultivated  varieties  dillVr  extn-me- 
ly  little  in  general  appearance  from  the  wild  species,  which  can  he 
recognised  in  its  native  land  at  the  tirst  glaiice."'  The  varieties 
cultivated  in  Britain  are  numerous;  thus  J. aw  son  "=■  gives  a  de- 
scription of  175  kinds.  I  planted  eighteen  kinds  in  adjoining 
rows;  their  stems  and  leaves  differed  but  little,  and  in  several 
cases  there  was  as  great  a  difference  between  tlio  individuals  of 
the  same  variety  as  between  the  different  varieties.  The  llower 
varied  in  size,  and  in  colour  between  white  and  purple,  but  in  no 
other  respect,  except  that  in  one  kind  the  sepals  were  somewhat 
elongated.  One  strange  variety  has  been  described  which  always 
produces  two  sorts  of  flowers,  the  first  double  and  sterile,  tiie  sec- 
ond single  and  fertile.^''  The  fruit  or  berries  also  diller,  but  only 
in  a  slight  degree.^^  The  varieties  are  liable  in  very  different  de- 
gree to  the  attack  of  the  Colorado  potato- beetle."" 

The  tubers,  on  the  other  hand,  present  a  wonderful  amount  of 
diversity.  This  fact  accords  with  the  principle  that  the  valuable 
and  selected  parts  of  all  cultivated  productions  ])resent  the  great- 
est amount  of  modification.  They  differ  much  in  size  and  shape, 
being  globular,  oval,  flattened,  kidney-like,  or  cylindiical.  One 
variety  from  Peru  is  described®*  as  being  quite  straight,  and  at 
least  six  inches  in  length,  though  no  thicker  than  a  man's  finger. 
The  eyes  or  buds  differ  in  form,  position,  and  colour.     Tlie  manner 


91  ♦  Bonplandia,'  x..  1862,  s.  348. 

92  Heer,  '  Die  Pflanzen  der 
Pfahlbauten.'  1866,  s.  22. 

"^  Mr.  Bentham  informs  me 
that  in  Poitou  and  the  adjoining 
parts  of  France,  varieties  of 
Phaseolus  vulgaris  are  extremely 
numerous,  and  so  different  that 
they  were  described  by  Savi  as 
distinct  species.  Mr.  Bentham 
believes  that  all  are  descended 
from  an  unknown  eastern  species. 
Although  the  varieties  differ  so 
greatly  in  stature  and  in  their 
seeds,  "  there  is  a  remarkal)le 
sameness  in  the  neglected  char- 
acters of  foliage  and  flowers,  and 
especially  in  the  bracteoles,  an 
insignificant  character  in  the  eyes 
even  of  botanists." 

9*  Darwin,      '  Journal     of     Re- 


searches.' 1845.  p.  28."».  Sal  line, 
in  '  Transact.  Hort.  See.,'  vol.  v. 
p.  249. 

95  '  Synopsis  of  the  Vegetable 
Products  of  Scotland.'  (jiioted  lu 
Wilson's  '  British  Farming.'  p. 
317. 

»•■•  Sir  a.  Mnckenzie.  in  '  (lar- 
dener's  Chronicle.'   1S4."»,   ji.   7'.»o. 

"'  Putsche  and  Vertncli.  '  Ver- 
such  einer  Monogriipliie  der  Kar- 
toffeln,'  181!).  s.  !).  1."..  .sVr  also 
Dr.  Anderson's  '  Recreations  lu 
Agriculture,'  vol.  iv.  p.  .'52.".. 

9s  Walsh,  '  The  American  Fnto- 
mologist,'  ISr.l),  p.  H'»().  Also  S, 
Tenney,  '  The  American  Natunil- 
ist,'  May,    ISTl.   i).    171. 

99  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1S02, 
p.  1052. 


344  CULINARY  PLANTS.  Chap.  IX. 

in  which  the  tubers  are  arranged  on  the  so-called  roots  or  rhizomes 
is  different;  thus,  in  the  gurken-kartoffeln  they  form  a  pyramid 
with  the  apex  downwards,  and  in  another  variety  they  bury  them- 
selves deep  in  the  ground.  The  roots  themselves  run  either  near 
the  surface  or  deep  in  the  ground.  The  tubers  also  difl^er  in  smooth- 
ness and  colour,  being  externally  white,  red,  purple,  or  almost 
black,  and  internally  white,  yellow,  or  almost  black.  They  differ 
in  flavour  and  quality,  being  either  waxy  or  mealy;  in  their  period 
of  maturity,  and  in  their  capacity  for  long  preservation. 

As  with  many  other  plants  which  have  been  long  propagated 
by  bulbs,  tubers,  cuttings,  &c.,  by  which  means  the  same  individual 
is  exposed  during  a  length  of  time  to  diversified  conditions,  seed- 
ling potatoes  generally  display  innumerable  slight  differences. 
Several  varieties,  even  when  propagated  by  tubers,  are  far  from 
constant,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  chapter  on  Bud -variation.  Dr. 
Anderson  '^^  procured  seed  from  an  Irish  purple  potato,  which  grew 
far  from  any  other  kind,  so  that  it  could  not  at  least  in  this  gener- 
ation have  been  crossed,  yet  the  many  seedlings  varied  in  almost 
every  possible  respect,  so  that  "  scarcely  two  plants  were  exactly 
alike."  Some  of  the  plants  which  closely  resembled  each  other 
above  ground,  produced  extremely  dissimilar  tubers;  and  some 
tubers  which  externally  could  hardly  be  distinguished,  differed 
widely  in  quality  when  cooked.  Even  in  this  case  of  extreme  varia- 
bility, the  parent-stock  had  some  influence  on  the  progeny,  for  the 
greater  number  of  the  seedlings  resembled  in  some  degree  the 
parent  Irish  potato.  Kidney  potatoes  must  be  ranked  amongst 
the  most  highly  cultivated  and  artificial  races;  nevertheless  their 
peculiarities  can  often  be  strictly  propagated  by  seed.  A  great 
authority,  Mr.  Rivers,'"^  states  that  "  seedlings  from  the  ash-leaved 
kidney  always  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  their  parent.  Seed- 
lings 'from  the  fluke-kidney  are  still  more  remarkable  for  their 
adherence  to  their  parent  stock,  for,  on  closely  observing  a  great 
number  during  two  seasons,  I  have  not  been  able  to  observe  the 
least  difference,  either  in  earliness,  productiveness,  or  in  the  size  or 
shape  of  their  tubers." 

100  '  Bath  Society  Agricult.  Pa-  loi '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1863, 

pers,'  vol.  V.  p.  127.     And  '  Recrea-        p.    643. 
tions  in  Agricult.,'  vol.  v.  p.  86. 


Ceap.  X.  FRUITS.  3^5 


CHAPTER   X. 
PLANTS  continued — fruits — ornamental  trees — flowers. 

Fkuits— Grapes— Vary  in  odd  and  trifling  particulare. MuUMTry— tho 

orange   group— Singular  results  from  crossing. Pcju-li  and  Net  ta- 

rine— Bud  variation— Analogous  variation— Relation  to  tlu-  Almond. 
Apricot. Plums — Variation  in  their  stones. Cherrii-s— Sin- 
gular varieties  of. Apple. Pear. Strawl)crr.v— InU-t  lilending 

of  the  original  forms. Gooseberry — Steady  increa.se  in  size  of  the 

fruit — Varieties    of. Walnut. Nut. Cucurbitaceous  plants — 

Wonderful  variation  of. 

Oenamextal  Trees — Their  variation  in  degree  and  kind — Ash-tree 
Scotch-fir — Hawthorn. 

Flowers— Multiple  origin  of  many  kinds— Variation   in  constitutional 

peculiarities — Kind  of  variation. Roses   several  species  cultivated. 

Pansy. Dahlia. Hyacinth — History  and  variation  of. 

The  Ti)ie  {Yitis  rinifcra). — The  best  authorities  eon>ider  all 
our  grapes  as  the  descendants  of  one  species  which  now  grows  wild 
in  western  Asia,  which  grew  wild  during  the  Bronze  age  in  Italy/ 
and  which  has  recently  been  found  fossil  in  a  tufaceous  deposit  in 
the  south  of  France.^  ,  Some  authors,  however,  entertain  much 
doubt  about  the  single  parentage  of  our  cultivated  varieties,  owing 
to  the  number  of  semi-wild  forms  found  in  Southern  Europe,  espe- 
cially as  described  by  Clemente^  in  a  forest  in  Spain:  but  as  the 
grape  sows  itself  freely  in  Southern  Europe,  and  as  several  of  the 
chief  kinds  transmit  their  characters  by  seed/  whilst  others  are 
extremely  variable,  the  existence  of  many  dift'erent  escaped  forms 
could  hardly  fail  to  occur  in  countries  where  this  jdant  has  been 
cultivated  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  That  the  vine  varies 
much  when  propagated  by  seed,  we  may  infer  from  the  largely  in- 
creased number  of  varieties  since  tlie  earlier  historical  records. 
New  hot-house  varieties  are  produced  almost  every  year:  for  in- 
stance/ a  golden-coloured  variety  has  been  recently  raised  in  I-Jig- 
knd  from  "a  black  grape  without  the  aid  of  a  cross.     Van  Mons* 

1  Heer.     '  Pflanzen    der    Pfahl-  ^  Qodron,    '  De   rKsi)rc.'.'    torn, 

bauten.'  1866.   s.  28.  ii.  P-  100. 

-  Alph.      De     Candolle.      'Geo-  •»  .c?,.^  ;,„  account  of  MMImtIs 

graph.    Bot..'   p.   872:    Dr.   A.   Tar-  experiments,    by  Alex,   .lordjin.   lu 

gioni-TozzettU     in     '  Jour.     Hort.  '  Mem.  de  rAcad.  de   Lyun.     torn. 

Soc'  VOL  ix.  p.  133.     For  the  fos-  ii.,   18r.2.  p.   los. 

sil  vine  found  bv  Dr.  G.  Planchon,  »  '  Gardener  s   Chronicle.     1M>4, 

sec     '  Nat.     Hist.     Review.'     18(>5,  p.  488.                               , 

April,   p.  225.     .^ec  also  the  valu-  «  •  Arbres  l  ruitiers,    l^M,  torn. 

able  works  of  M.   de   Saporta  on  ii.  p.  290. 
the  '  Tertiary  Plants  of  France.' 


346  FRUITS.  Chap.  X. 

reared  a  multitude  of  varieties  from  the  seed  of  one  vine,  which 
was  completely  separated  from  all  others,  so  that  there  could  not, 
at  least  in  this  generation,  have  been  any  crossing,  and  the  seed- 
lings presented  "  les  analogues  de  toutes  les  sortes,'"  and  ditiered  in 
almost  every  possible  character  both  in  the  fruits  and  foliage. 

The  cultivated  varieties  are  extremely  numerous;  Count  Odart 
says  that  he  will  not  deny  that  there  may  exist  throughout  the 
world  700  or  800,  perhaps  even  1000  varieties,  but  not  a  third  of 
these  have  any  value.  In  the  catalogue  of  fruit  cultivated  in  the 
Horticultural  Gardens  of  London,  published  in  1842,  99  varieties 
are  enumerated.  Wherever  the  grape  is  grown  many  varieties 
occur:  Pallas  describes  24  in  the  Crimea,  and  Burnes  mentions  10 
in  Cabool.  The  classification  of  the  varieties  has  'much  perplexed 
writers,  and  Count  Odart  is  reduced  to  a  geographical  system;  but 
I  will  not  enter  on  this  subject,  nor  on  the  many  and  great  differ- 
ences between  the  varieties.  I  will  merely  specify  a  few  curious 
and  trifling  peculiarities,  all  taken  from  Odart's  liighly  esteemed 
work,^  for  the  sake  of  showing  the  diversified  variability  of  this 
plant.  Simon  has  classed  grapes  into  two  main  divisions,  those 
with  downy  leaves,  and  those  with  smooth  leaves,  but  he  admits 
that  in  one  variety,  namely  the  Rebazo,  the  leaves  are  either 
smooth,  or  downy;  and  Odart  (p.  70)  states  that  some  varieties 
have  the  nerves  alone,  and  other  varieties  their  young  leaves, 
downy,  whilst  the  old  ones  are  smooth.  The  Pedro-Ximenes  grape 
(Odart,  p.  397)  presents  a  peculiarity  by  which  it  can  be  at  once 
recognised  amongst  a  host  of  other  varieties,  namely,  that  when 
the  fruit  is  nearly  ripe  the  nerves  of  the  leaves  or  even  the  whole 
surface  becomes  yellow.  The  Barbera  d'Asti  is  well  marked  by  sev- 
eral characters  (p.  426),  amongst  others,  "by  some  of  the  leaves, 
and  it  is  always  the  lowest  on  the  branches,  suddenly  becoming 
of  a  dark  red  colour."  Several  authors  in  classifying  grapes  have 
founded  their  main  divisions  on  the  berries  being  either  round  or 
oblong;  and  Odart  admits  the  value  of  this  character;  yet  there 
is  one  variety,  the  Maccabeo  (p.  71),  which  often  produces  small 
round,  and  large  oblong,  berries  in  the  same  bunch.  Certain 
grapes  called  Xebbiolo  (p.  429)  present  a  constant  character,  suffi- 
cient for  their  recognition,  namely,  "  the  slight  adherence  of  that 
part  of  the  pulp  which  surrounds  the  seeds  to  the  rest  of  the 
berrv,  when  cut  through  transversely."  A  Rhenish  variety  is 
mentioned  (p.  228)  which  likes  a  dry  soil;  the  fruit  ripens  well, 
but  at  the  moment  of  maturity,  if  much  rain  falls,  the  berries  are 
apt  to  rot;  on  the  other  hand, 'the  fruit  of  a  Swiss  variety _  (p.  243) 
is  valued  for  well  sustaining  prolonged  humidity.  This  latter 
varietv  sprouts  late  in  the  spring,  yet  matures  its  fruit  early; 
other  varieties  (p  362)  have  the  fault  of  being  too  much  excited  by 
the  April  sun,  and  in  consequence  suffer  from  frost.  A  Styrian 
variety  (p.  254)  has  brittle  foot-stalks,  so  that  the  clusters  of  fruit 
are  often  blown  off;  this  variety  is  said  to  be  particularly  attrac- 

'  Odart,    '  Ampelographie    Universelle,'  1849. 


Chap.  X.  ORANGE   GROUP.  3^-^ 


fered  far  more  from  mildew  tlmn  otlifis.  'J'lui.s  "the  mou.)  of 
Chasselas,  so  rich  in  varieties,  did  not  afford  a  siiiLde  forlunitc  ex 
ception;"  certain  other  groups  sufiered  much  less;  the  true  old 
Burgundy,  for  instance,  ^Yas  comparatively  free  from  disease  and 
the  Carmmat  likewise  Resisted  the  attack.  The  American  vim-s 
which  belong  to  a  distinct  species,  entirely  esca])e{l  the  <liH<.ase  in 
France:  and  we  thus  see  that  those  European  varieties  which  hent 
resist  the  disease  must  have  acquired  in  a  slight  degree  the  .same 
constitutional  peculiarities  as  the  American  sijccies.  *^ 

White  Midberru  {Morns  aJb(i).~l  mention  this  plant  because  it 
has  varied  in  certain  characters,  namely,  in  the  texture  and  (lualitv 
of  the  leaves,  fitting  them  to  serve  as  food  for  the  doniestii-ated 
silkworm,  in  a  manner  not  observed  with  other  ])lants:  but  thi^^. 
has  arisen  simply  from  such  variations  in  the  mulberry  having 
been  attended  to,  selected,  and  rendered  more  or  less  consiant.  M. 
de  Quatrefages  **  briefly  describes  six  kinds  cultivated  in  one  valley 
in  France:  of  these  the  amourouso  produces  excellent  leaves,  but 
is  rapidly  being  abandoned  because  it  produces  much  fruit 
mingled  with  the  leaves:  the  antofino  yields  deeply  cut  liMves  of 
the  finest  quality,  but  not  in  great  quantity:  the  cldro  is  much 
sought  for  because  the  leaves  can  be  easily  collected:  lastly,  the 
roso  bears  strong  hardy  leaves,  produced  in  large  quantity,  but 
with  the  one  inconvenience,  that  they  are  best  adapted  for  the 
worms  after  their  fourth  moult.  MM.  Jacqueniet-Bonnefont,  of 
Lyon,  however,  remark  in  their  catalogue  (18G2)  that  two  sub- 
varieties  have  been  confounded  under  the  name  of  the  roso,  one 
having  leaves  too  thick  for  the  caterpillars,  the  other  being  valu- 
able because  the  leaves  can  easily  be  gathered  from  the  branches- 
without  the  bark  being  torn. 

In  India  the  mulberry  has  also  given  rise  to  many  varieties. 
The  Indian  form  is  thought  by  many  botanists  to  be  a  distinct 
species;  but  as  Rovle  remarks,'"  "so  many  varieties  have  been 
produced  by  cultivation  that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  whether- 
they  all  belong  to  one  species:  "  they  are,  as  he  adds,  nearly  as 
numerous  as  those  of  the  silkworm. 

The  Oranf/e  Group.— We  here  meet  with  great  confusion  in  t he- 
specific  distinction  and  parentage  of  the  several  kinds.     C^allesio," 

«M.    Boncharrlnt.    in   '  Comptes  1S72,    p.   03.    and    'Fifth    Koport.- 

Rendns.'  Dec.  1st.  1851.  quoted  in  187.3.  ,p.   <«!.  ,,   ,    ,,       „„ 

'  Gardener's  Chron.,'  18.32.  p.  435.  »  '  Etudes  sur  los  Maladies  nc- 

See  also  C.  V.  Rilev  on  the  man-  tuelles  du  \  er  a  Sme.    is.>.t.  p   .^i. 
ner  in  which  some  few  of  the  va-  '"  '  Productive  Resources  of  In- 

rieties  of  the  American  Labruscau  dia.'  p.   V.jO.  , 

Vine    escape    the    attacks    of    tlie  "  *  Traite      du      runis.       IMl.- 

Phvlloxera:    'Fourth   Annual   Re-  '  Teoria  della   Riprodu/.ione  \e>;e- 

port  on  the  Insects  of  Missouri,'  tale,'   181(5.     I  quote  chielij    from* 


348  FRUITS.  Chap.  X. 

who  almost  devoted  his  lifetime  to  the  subject,  considers  that 
there  are  four  species,  namely,  sweet  and  bitter  oranges,  lemons, 
a,nd  citrons,  each  of  which  has  given  rise  to  whole  groups  of  varie- 
ties, monsters,  and  supposed  hybrids.  One  high  authority '"  be- 
lieves that  these  four  reputed  species  are  all  varieties  of  the  wild 
€itrus  medica,  but  that  the  shaddock  (Citrus  dccumauu),  which 
is  not  known  in  a  wild  state,  is  a  distinct  species;  though  its  dis- 
tinctness is  doubted  by  another  writer  "  of  great  authority  on 
such  matters,"  namely.  Dr.  Buchanan  Hamilton.  Alph.  De  Can- 
dolle,^^  on  the  other  hand — and  there  cannot  be  a  more  capable 
judge — advances  \\  hat  he  considers  sufficient  evidence  of  the  orange 
(he  doubts  whether  the  bitter  and  sweet  kinds  are  specifically  dis- 
tinct), the  lemon,  and  citron,  having  been  found  wild,  and  conse- 
■quently  that  they  are  distinct.  He  mentions  two  other  forms  cul- 
tivated in  Japan  and  Java,  which  he  ranks  undoubted  species;  he 
speaks  rather  more  doubtfully  about  the  shaddock,  which  varies 
much,  and  has  not  been  found  wild;  and  finally  he  considers  some 
forms,  such  as  Adam's  apple  and  the  bergamotte,  as  probably 
liybrids. 

I  have  briefly  abstracted  these  opinions  for  the  sake  of  showing 
those  who  have  never  attended  to  svich  subjects,  how  perplexing 
they  are.  It  would,  therefore,  be  useless  for  my  purpose  to  give  a 
sketch  of  the  conspicuous  differences  between  the  several  forms. 
Besides  the  ever-recurrent  difficulty  of  determining  whether  forms 
found  wild  are  truly  aboriginal  or  are  escaped  seedlings,  many  of 
the  forms,  which  must  be  ranked  as  varieties,  transmit  their  char- 
acters almost  perfectly  by  seed.  Sweet  and  bitter  oranges  difl'er 
in  no  important  respect  except  in  the  flavour  of  their  fruit,  but 
Oallesio  ^^  is  most  emphatic  that  both  kinds  Can  be  propagated  by 
seed  with  absolute  certainty.  Consequently,  in  accordance  with 
his  simple  rule,  he  classes  them  as  distinct  species;  as  he  does 
sweet  and  bitter  almonds,  the  peach  and  nectarine,  «S:c.  He  admits, 
however,  that  the  soft-shelled  pine-tree  produces  not  only  soft- 
shelled  but  some  hard-shelled  seedlings,  so  that  a  little  greater 
force  in  the  power  of  inheritance  would,  according  to  this  rule, 
raise  a  soft-shelled  pine-tree  into  the  dignity  of  an  aboriginally 
created  species.  The  positive  assertion  made  by  Macfayden  ^^  that 
the  pips  of  sweet  oranges  produced  in  Jamaica,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  in  which  they  are  sown,  either  sAveet  or  bitter 
oranges,  is  probably  an  error;  for  M.  Alph.  De  Candolle  informs 
me  that  since  the  publication  of  his  great  work  he  has  received 
accounts  from  Guiana,  the  Antilles,  and  INIauritius.  that  in  these 
countries  sweet  oranges  faithfully  transmit  their  character.     Gal- 

this   second    work.      In   1839   Gal-  A.   Targioni-Tozzetti,    '  Journal  of 

lesio  published   in   folio   '  Gli   Ag-  Hort.  See.,'  vol.  ix.  p.  133. 
rumi  del  Giard.   Bot..di  Firenze,'  ^^  •  Qf^oorrapji.   Bot..'  p.  803. 

In  which   he  gives  a  curious  dia-  i*  '  Tooria   della    Riproduzione,' 

gram  of  the  supposed  relationship  pp.  52-57. 

of  all  the  forms.  ^^  Hooker's  '  Bot.  Misc.,'  vol.  i. 

12  Mr.  Benthara,  Review  of  Dr.  p.  302;  vol.  ii.  p.  111. 


Chap.  X.  ORANGE  GROUP. 


340 


lesio  found  that  the  willow-leafod  and  the  Little  China  orantrcs 
reproduced  their  proper  leaves  and  fruit;  but  the  sccdlinL's  wf-rc 
not  quite  equal  m  merit  to  their  i)arents.  The  red-llcshi'd  ..ran.'., 
on  the  other  hand,  fails  to  rejjroduce  itsi.jf.  (iallesio  aUo  obst-rx^ed 
that  the  seeds  of  several  other  sin^nilar  varieties  nil  n-iMuducetl 
trees  having  a  peculiar  physiognomy,  partly  icseinbliug  their  par- 
ent-forms. I  can  adduce  another  case:  the  nivrtle  leave<l  oran"o 
is  ranked  by  all  authors  as  a  variety,  but  is  very  distinct  in  gem-ml 
aspect:  in  my  father's  greenhouse,  during  manv  vears.  it  raielv 
yielded  any  fruit,  but  aflast  produced  one;  and 'a  tree  thus  niJM-il 
was  identical  with  the  parent-form. 

Another  and  more  serious  diiliculty  in  determining  the  rank  of 
the  several  forms  is  that,  according  to  Gallesi(),"''^thev  largely 
intercross  without  artificial  aid;  thus  he  positively  states  tliat 
seeds  taken  from  lemon-trees  (C.  leniomini)  growing' mingled  with 
the  citron  (C.  medica),  which  is  generally  considered  as  a  distinct 
species,  produced  a  graduated  series  of  varieties  between  these  two 
forms.  Again,  an  Adam's  apple  was  produced  from  the  seed  of  a 
eweet  orange,  which  grew  close  to  lemons  and  citrons,  liut  such 
facts  hardly  aid  us  in  determining  whether  to  rank  these  forms  as 
species  or  varieties;  for  it  is  now  known  tliat  undoubtt-d  speeies  of 
V'erbascum,  Cistus,  Primula,  Salix,  &c.,  frequently  cross  in  a  state 
of  nature.  If  indeed  it  were  proved  that  plants  of  the  orange  tribe 
raised  from  these  crosses  were  even  partially  sterile,  it  would  be  a 
strong  argument  in  favour  of  their  rank  as  species.  Gal  lesio  as- 
serts that  this  is  the  case;  but  he  does  not  distinguish  between 
sterility  from  hybridism  and  from  tlie  effects  of  culture:  anil  he 
almost  destroys  the  force  of  this  statement  by  another,'"  namely, 
that  when  he  impregnated  the  flowers  of  the  common  orange  with 
the  pollen  taken  from  undoubted  varieties  of  the  orange,  mon- 
strous fruits  were  produced,  which  included  "  little  pulp,  and  had 
no  seeds,  or  imperfect  seeds." 

In  this  tribe  of  plants  we  meet  with  instances  of  two  highly 
remarkable  facts  in  vegetable  physiology:  Gallesio  ^^  impregnated 
an  orange  with  pollen  from  a  lemon,  and  tlie  fruit  borne  on  the 
mother  tree  had  a  raised  stripe  of  peel  like  that  of  a  lemon  both  in 
colour  and  taste,  but  the  pulp  was  like  that  of  an  orange  and 
included  only  imperfect  seeds.  The  possibility  of  pollen  from  one 
variety  or  species  directly  affecting  the  fruit  produced  by  anotlier 
variety  of  species,  is  a  subject  which  I  shall  fully  discuss  in  tlie 
folloMnng  chapter. 

The  "second  remarkable  fact  is,  that  two  supposed  hylirids" 
(for  their  hybrid  nature  was  not  ascertained),  between  an  orange 
and  either  a  lemon  or  citron,  produced  on  the  same  tree  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruit  of  both  pure  parent-forms,  as  well  as  of  a  mixed 
or  crossed  nature.  A  bud  taken  from  any  one  of  the  branclu's  and 
grafted  on  another  tree  produces  either  one  of  the  pure  kinds  or  a 

1"  '  Teoria  delta  Riproduzioue,'  ^^  '  Teoria  della   lUproduzlouc,' 

p.  .5.3.  p.  ^>7.  ^_    _. 

1"  Ibid.,  p.  G9.  "Ibid.,  pp.    <•>,   «(>• 


350 


FRUITS. 


Chap.  X» 


capricious  tree  reproducing  the  three  kinds.  Whether  the  sweet 
lemon,  which  includes  within  the  same  fruits  segments  of  differ- 
ently flavoured  pulp,^"  is  an  analogous  case,  I  know  not.  But  ta 
this  subject  I  shall  have  to  recur. 

I  will  conclude  by  giving  from  A.  Risso  -^  a  short  account  of  a 
very  singular  variety  of  the  common  orange.  It  is  the  "  citrus 
anrantiiim  fructu  variabili,"  which  on  the  young  shoots  produces 
rounded-oval  leaves  spotted  with  yellow,  borne  on  petioles  with 
heart-shaped  wings;  when  these  leaves  fall  off,  they  are  succeeded 
by  longer  and  narrower  leaves,  with  undulated  margins,  of  a  pale- 
green  colour  embroidered  with  yellow,  borne  on  footstalks  without 
wings.  The  fruit  whilst  young  is  pear-shaped,  yellow,  longitudi- 
nally striated,  and  sweet;  but  as  it  ripens,  it  becomes  spherical,  of 
a  reddish-3'ellow,  and  bitter. 

Peach  and  Xectarine  {Ami/gdalus  persica). — The  best  authori- 
ties are  nearly  unanimous  that  the  peach  has  never  been  found 
wild.  It  was  introduced  from  Persia  into  Europe  a  little  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  at  this  period  few  varieties  existed.  Alph. 
De  Candolle,"  from  the  fact  of  the  peach  not  having  spread  from 
Persia  at  an  earlier  period,  and  from  its  not  having  pure  Sanscrit 
or  Hebrew  names,  believes  that  it  is  not  an  aboriginal  of  Western 
Asia,  but  came  from  the  terra  incognita  of  China.  The  supposi- 
tion, however,  that  the  peach  is  a  modified  almond  which  acquired 
its  present  character  at  a  comparatively  late  period,  would,  I  pre- 
sume, account  for  these  facts;  on  the  same  principle  that  the  nec- 
tarine, the  offspring  of  the  peach,  has  few  native  names,  and  be- 
came known  in  Europe  at  a  still  later  period. 

Andrew  Knight,^^  from  finding  that  a  seedling-tree,  raised  from 
a  sweet  almond  fertilised  by  the  pollen  of  a  peach,  yielded  fruit 
quite  like  that  of  a  peach,  suspected  that  the  peach-tree  is  a  modi- 
fied almond;  and  in  this  he  has  been  followed  by  various  authors.^* 
A  first-rate  peach,  almost  globular  in  shape,  formed  of  soft  and 
sweet  pulp,  surrounding  a  hard,  much  furrowed,  and  slightly  flat- 
tened stone,  certainly  differs  greatly  from  an  almond,  with  its  soft, 
slightly  furrowed,  much  flattened,  and  elongated  stone,  protected 
by  a  tough,  greenish  layer  of  bitter  flesh.  Mr.  Bentham  -^  has 
particularly  called  attention  to  the  stone  of  the  almond  being  so 
much  more  flattened  than  that  of  the  peach.  But  in  the  several 
varieties  of  the  almond,  the  stone  differs  greatly  in  the  degree  to 
which  it  is  compressed,  in  size,  shape,  strength,  and  in  the  depth 


20  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1841, 
p.  613. 

-^  '  Annales  du  Museum,'  torn. 
XX.  p.  188. 

-2  '  Geoffraph.  Bot..'  p.  882. 

23  '  Transactions  of  Hort.  Soc.,' 
vol.  iii.  p.  1,  and  vol.  iv.  p.  396. 
and  note  to  p.  370.  A  coloured 
drawing  is  ffiven  of  this  hybrid. 

'*  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1856, 
p.  532.  A  writer,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed   Dr.    Lindley,    remarks   on 


the  perfect  series  which  may  be 
formed  between  the  almond  and 
the  peach.  Another  high  author- 
ity, Mr.  Rivers,  who  has  had  such 
wide  experience,  strongly  sus- 
pects (  Gardener's  Chronicle,' 
1863,  p.  27)  that  peaches,  if  left 
to  a  state  of  nature,  would  in  the 
course  of  time  retrograde  into 
thick-fleshed  almonds. 

-5  '  .Tournal  of  Hort.   Soc.,'  vol. 
ix.  p.  168. 


PEACH  AND   NECTARINE. 


Chap.  X. 

^ 3:^1 

of  the  furrows,  as  may  be  seen  in  ♦).«  o«, 

4  to  8)  of  such  kinds  ari  have  11  n  ^7";'J'='"-y;"'^'  *J'='^^'"^'  (N'''«. 

stones  also  (Nos    1  to  r>  fv     \  '?'''*"  ^''  '""*'''^-     ^^'«''  P«-'"-»'- 

stones  also  (JNos.  1  to  3)  the  degree  of  compression  and  eloniaUou 


Fig.  42  — Peach  and  Almond  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed  edtreways.  1. 
Common  Ens[lish  Peach.  2.  Double,  crimson-rtuwcred  Chinese  Peacli. 
3.  Chinese  Honey  Peach.  4.  Ensrlish  Almond,  fv  Barcelona  Almond. 
6.  Malaga  Almond.  7.  Soft-shelled  French  Almond  S.  Smyrna 
Almond. 

is  seen  to  vary;   so  that  the  stone  of  the  Chinese  Honey-|)e:ich  (No, 
3)  is  much  more  elongated  and  compressed  than  that  of  the  (No.  8) 


352  FRUITS.  Chap.X. 

Smyrna  almond.  Mr.  Elvers,  of  Sawbridgeworth,  to  whom  I  am 
indebted  for  some  of  the  specimens  above  figured,  and  wlio  has  had 
such  great  horticultural  experience,  has  called  my  attention  to 
several  varieties  which  connect  the  almond  and  the  peach.  In 
France  there  is  a  variety  called  the  Peach-Almond,  which  Mr. 
Rivers  formerly  cultivated,  and  which  is  correctly  described  in  a 
French  catalogue  as  being  oval  and  swollen,  with  the  aspect  of  a 
peach,  including  a  hard  stone  surrounded  by  a  lieshy  coverino-, 
which  is  sometimes  eatable.^"  A  remarkable  statement  by  M. 
Luizet  has  recently  appeared  in  the  '  Revue  Horticole.'  -^  namely, 
that  a  Peach-almond,  grafted  on  a  peach,  bore,  during  1SG3  and 
1864,  almonds  alone,-  but  in  18G5  bore  six  peaches  and  no  almonds. 
M.  Carriere,  in  commenting  on  this  fact,  cites  the  case  of  a  double- 
flowered  almond  which,  after  producing  during  several  years  al- 
monds, suddenly  bore  for  two  years  in  succession  spherical  fleshy 
peach-like  fruits,  but  in  18G5  reverted  to  its  former  state  and  pro- 
duced large  almonds. 

Again,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Rivers,  the  double-flowering  Chinese 
peaches  resemble  almonds  in  their  manner  of  gro^^■th  and  in  their 
flowers;  the  fruit  is  much  elongated  and  flattened,  with  the  flesh 
both  bitter  and  sweet,  but  not  uneatable,  and  it  is  said  to  be  of 
better  quality  in  China.  From  this  stage  one  small  step  leads  us 
to  such  inferior  peaches  as  are  occasionally  raised  from  seed.  For 
instance,  Mr.  Rivers  sowed  a  number  of  peach-stones  imported 
from  the  United  States,  where  they  are  collected  for  raising  stocks, 
and  some  of  the  trees  raised  by  him  produced  peaches  which  were 
very  like  almonds  in  appearance,  being  small  and  hard,  with  the 
pulp  not  softening  till  very-  late  in  the  autumn.  Van  Mons  -*  also 
states  that  he  once  raised  from  a  peach-stone  a  peach  having  the 
aspect  of  a  wild  tree,  with  fruit  like  that  of  the  almond.  From 
inferior  peaches,  such  as  these  just  described,  we  may  pass  by  small 
transitions,  through  clingstones  of  poor  quality,  to  our  best  and 
most  melting  kinds.  From  this  gradation,  from  the  cases  of  sudden 
variation  above  recorded,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  peach  has  not 
been  found  wild,  it  seems  to  me  by  far  the  most  probable  view,  that 
the  peach  is  the  descendant  of  the  almond,  improved  and  modified 
in  a  marvellous  manner. 

One  fact,  however,  is  opposed  to  this  conclusion.  A  hybrid, 
raised  by  Knight  from  the  sweet  almond  bv  the  pollen  of  the 
peach,  produced  flowers  with  little  or  no  pollen,  yet  bore  fruit, 
having  been  apparently  fertilised  by  a  neighbouring  nectarine. 
Another  hybrid,  from  a  sweet  almond  by  the  pollen  of  a  nectarine, 
produced  durino-  the  first  three  years  imperfect  blossoms,  but  after- 
wards perfect  flowers  with  an  abundance  of  pollen.     If  this  slight 

^^  Whether  this  is  the  same  va-  between  thp  nlmond  and  peach:  It 

riety     as     one     lately     mentioned  prorlnops  dnrine:  snecessivp   years 

('  Gard.  Chron..'  1S6.5.  p.  11.54)  l)y  verv   different   kinds   of  frnit. 

M.    Carriere   under   the    name    of  -"  Qnotpd     in     '  Gard.     Chron.,' 

persica    intrrmccUa,    I    know    not;  ISGG.  p.  SOO. 

this  variety  is  said  to  be  interme-  ^s  Quoted  in  '.Tonrnal  de  la  Soc. 

diate  in  nearly  all  its  characters  Imp.  d'Horticulture,'  1855,  p.  238. 


Chap.  X.  PEACH  AND   NECTARIXE. 


35a 


degi-ee  of  sterility  cannot  be  accounto.l  for  l,v  the  v„utli  of  tlu-  treoa 
(and  this  often  causes  lessened  fertility),  or'by  tl.V  nu.nstrous  «tate 
of  the  flowers,  or  by  the  conditions  to  which  the  ires  wore  ev- 
posed  these  two  eases  would  uflord  a  j^ocd  ar^'unient  a.'ain.st  the 
peach  being  the  descendant  of  the  almond. 

Whether  or  not  the  peach  has  proceeiled  from  the  almond  it 
has  certainly  gneii  rise  to  nectarines,  or  s.nooth  peaches,  as  thev 
are  called  by  the  French.  :\Iost  of  the  varieties,  both  .)f  ih,-  iK-acli 
and  nectarine,  reproduce  themselves  truly  by  seed,  (iallcsio"  nava 
he  has  verified  this  with -respect  to  eight  races  of  the  pcu.-h  Mr 
Rivers  ^'^  has  given  some  striking  instances  from  his  msn  experi- 
ence, and  it  is  notorious  that  good  peaches  are  consiiintiv  raised 
in  North  America  from  seed.  Many  of  the  American  sub-varie- 
ties come  true  or  nearly  true  to  their  kiiul,  such  as  the  white- 
blossoms,  several  of  the  yellow-fruited  freestone  peaches,  the  blood 
clingstone,  the  heath,  and  the  lemon  clingstone.  On 'the  other 
hand,  a  clingstone  peach  has  been  known  to  give  rise  to  a  free- 
stone.'^ In  England  it  has  been  noticed  that  seedlings  inlierit 
from  their  parents  flowers  of  the  same  size  and  colour.  Some 
characters,  however,  contrary  to  what  might  have  been  exj)ected. 
often  are  not  inherited;  such  as  the  presence  and  form  of  the 
glands  on  the  leaves."-  With  respect  to  nectarines,  both  cling  and 
freestones  are  known  in  Xorth  America  to  reproduce  themselves  by 
seed.''  In  England  the  new  white  nectarine  was  a  seedling  of  the 
old  white,  and  Mr.  Rivers^*  has  recorded  several  similar  cases. 
From  this  strong  tendency  to  inheritance,  which  both  peach  and 
nectarine  trees  exhibit, — from  certain  slight  constitutional  d i (Ter- 
ences'^  in  their  nature, — and  from  the  great  dilierence  in  tlieir 
fruit  both  in  appearance  and  flavour,  it  is  not  surprising,  notwith- 
standing that  the  trees  differ  in  no  other  respects  and  cannot  even 
be  distinguished,  as  I  am  informed  by  ]\Ir.  Rivers,  whilst  young, 
that  they  have  been  ranked  by  some  authors  as  specifically  dis- 
tinct. Gallesio  does  not  doubt\hat  they  are  distinct;  even  Alph. 
De  Candolle  does  not  appear  perfectly  assured  of  their  specific  iden- 
tity: and  an  eminent  botanist  has  quite  recently''  maintained  tluit 
the  nectarine  "  probably  constitutes  a  distinct  species.'' 

Hence  it  may  be  worth  Avhile  to  give  all  the  evidence  on  the 
origin  of  the  nectarine.  The  facts  in  themselves  are  curious,  and 
will  hereafter  have  to  be  referred  to  when  the  important  subject 

2«  '  Teoria    della     Riproduzione  "  Briokeirs    'Natural    "ist-rv 

Vecetnle,'   ISIO.   p.   SO.  of     North     rarolma       /I-'^'Tj/.h 

30  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1862,        and   _r)owninK  s        I- ruit      ire  is. 

^"  ^Mr.       Rivers,        '  Gardener's         '  ''*  '^Gardener's  Chronicle.'  18C2. 

^^'^DowS.^■'¥he     Frnits     of  ^'  "^he  peaoh   and   ne.tarjno  d<> 

Amerioa,'   1M5,   pp.   475.  489,   402,  not    sucoeod    f^MiinHx     nnHI    It.    t  i.- 

494,    49'1      (^pc    also    F.    Michnux.  same    soil;    .^rr    Lnidle}  s      llortl 

•Travels    in    N.    America'    (Enj?.  culture.'  p.  3ol. 

translnt.).     p.     228.       For    similar  ..    36  qodron.    '  De  1  Lspi^cc,     torn. 

cases  in  France  see  Godron's,  '  De  ii.,  1859,  p.  97. 

I'Espece,'  torn.  ii.  p.  97. 


354 


FRUITS. 


Chap.  X. 


of  bud-variation  is  discussed.  It  is  asserted "  that  the  Boston 
nectarine  was  produced  from  a  peach-stone,  and  this  nectarine 
reproduced  itself  by  seed.^  Mr.  Rivers  states  ^'^  that  from  stones 
of  three  distinct  varieties  of  the  peach  he  raised  three  varieties 
of  nectarine;  and  in  one  of  these  cases  no  nectarine  grew  near 
the  parent  peach-tree.  In  another  instance  Mr.  Rivers  raised  a 
nectarine  from  a  peach,  and  in  the  succeeding  generation  another 
nectarine  from  this  nectarine.*^  Other  such  instances  have  been 
communicated  to  me,  but  they  need  not  be  given.  Of  the  converse 
case,  namely,  of  nectarine-stones  yielding  peach-trees  (both  free 
and  clingstones),  we  have  six  undoubted  instances  recorded  by  Mr. 
Rivers;  and  in  two  of  these  instances  the  parent  nectarines  had 
been  seedlings  from  other  nectarines,*^ 

With  respect  to  the  more  curious  case  of  full-grown  peach-trees 
suddenly  producing  nectarines  by  bud- variation  (or  sports  as  they 
are  called  by  gardeners),  the  evidence  is  superabundant;  there  is 
also  good  evidence  of  the  same  tree  producing  both  peaches  and 
nectarines,  or  half-and-half  fruit;  by  this  term  I  mean  a  fruit  with 
the  one-half  a  perfect  peach,  and  the  other  half  a  perfect  nectarine. 

Peter  Collinson  in  1741  recorded  the  first  case  of  a  peach-tree 
producing  a  nectarine,*^  and  in  1766  he  added  two  other  instances. 
In  the  same  work,  the  editor.  Sir  J,  E.  Smith,  describes  the  more 
remarkable  case  of  a  tree  in  Norfolk  which  usually  bore  both 
perfect  nectarines  and  perfect  peaches;  but  during  two  seasons 
some  of  the  fruit  were  half  and  half  in  nature. 

Mr.  Salisbury  in  1808  "  records  six  other  eases  of  peach-trees 
producing  nectarines.  Three  of  the  varieties  are  named;  viz.,  the 
Alberge,  Belle  Chevreuse,  and  Royal  George.  This  latter  tree  sel- 
dom failed  to  produce  both  kinds  of  fruit.  He  gives  another  case 
of  a  half-and-half  fruit. 

At  Radford,  in  Devonshire "  a  clingstone  peach,  purchased  as 
the  Chancellor,  was  planted  in  1815,  and  in  1824.  after  having 
previously  produced  peaches  alone,  bore  on  one  branch  twelve 
nectarines;  in  1825  the  same  branch  yielded  twenty-six  nectarines, 
and  in  1826  thirty-six  nectarines,  together  with  eighteen  peaches. 
One  of  the  peaches  was  almost  as  smooth  on  one  side  as  a  necta- 
rine.   The  nectarines  were  as  dark  as,  but  smaller  than,  the  Elruge. 

At  Beccles  a  Royal  George  peach  *^  produced  a  fruit,  "  three 
parts  of  it  being  peach  and  one  part  nectarine,  quite  distinct  in 
appearance  as  well  as  in  flavour."  The  lines  of  division  were  lon- 
gitudinal, as  represented  in  the  woodcut.  A  nectarine- tree  grew 
five  yards  from  this  tree. 

l,Sfi5.    p.    1059:    and    '  Journal    of 
Hort.,'  18(36,  p.  102. 

■^-  '  Correspondence       of       Lin- 
nfeus,'  1821,  pp.  7,  8,  70. 

"  '  Transact.  Hort,  Soc.,'  vol.  i. 
p.  103. 

4*  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Mag,,' 
1820.  vol.  i.  p.  471. 

45  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Mag,, 
1828,  p,  53. 


3T  *  Transact,  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol, 
vi.  p.  .394. 

38  Downing's  *  Fruit  Trees,'  p. 
502. 

39  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1862, 
p.  1195. 

*<»  '  Journal  of  Horticulture,' 
Feb.  5tli,  1866,  p,  102, 

*^  Mr.  Rivers,  in  '  Gardener's 
Chron,,'  1859,  p,  774,  1862,  p.  1195; 


Chap.  X.  PEACH  AND  NECTARIXE.  355 

Professor  Chapman  states***  that  ho  has  often  sih'm  in  N'irpnia 
very  old  peach-trees  bearing  nectarines. 

A  writer  in  the  '  Gardener's  Chronicle  '  Siivs  that  a  peach-tree 
planted  fifteen  years  previously"  produced  this  vear  a  u.-ctarine 
between  two  peaches;  a  nectarine-tree  ^new  close' l)v. 

In  1844^^  a  Vanguard  peach-tree  produced,  in  tli.-  miilst  of  its 
ordinary  fruit,  a  single  red  Roman  nectarine. 

Mr.  Calver  is  stated*'-'  to  have  raised  in  the  Lnitcd  Slates  a 
seedling  peach  which  produced  a  mixed  crop  of  both  peaches  and 
nectarines. 

Near  Dorking^''  a  branch  of  the  Teton  de  A'cnus  peacli,  which 
reproduces  itself  truly  by  seed,"  bore  its  own  fruit  "  so  remarkable 
for  its  prominent  point,  and  a  nectarine  rather  smaller  but  well 
formed  and  quite  round." 

The  previous  cases  all  refer  to  peaches  suddenly  producinj;  nec- 
tarines, but  at  Carclew  "  the  unique  case  occurred,  of  a  nectarine- 
tree,  raised  twenty  years  before  from  seed  and  never  giatted.  pro- 
ducing a  fruit  half  peach  and  half  nectarine;  subseipiently  bore  a 
perfect  peach. 

To  sum  up  the  foregoing  facts;  we  have  excellent  evidence  of 
peach-stones  producing  nectarine-trees,  and  of  nectarine-stones  j»io- 
ducing  peach-trees, — of  the  same  tree  bearing  peaches  ami  necta- 
rines,— of  peach-trees  suddenly  producing  by  bud->ariation  necta- 
rines (such  nectarines  reproducing  nectarines  by  seed),  as  well  as 
fruit  in  part  nectarine  and  in  part  peach, — and,  lastly,  of  one  nec- 
tarine-tree first  bearing  half-and-half  fruit,  and  subsequently  true 
peaches.  As  the  peach  came  into  existence  before  the  nectarine, 
it  might  have  been  expected  from  the  law  of  reversion  tliat  nec- 
tarines would  have  given  birth  by  bud-variation  or  by  seed  to 
peaches,  oftener  than  peaches  to  nectarines;  but  this  is  by  no 
means  the  case. 

Two  explanations  have  been  suggested  to  account  for  these 
conversions.  First,  that  the  parent  trees  have  been  in  every  ca.se 
hybrids  ^^  between  the  peach  and  nectarine,  and  have  reverted  by 
bud-variation  or  by  seed  to  one  of  their  pure  parent  forms.  This 
view  in  itself  is  not  very  improbable:  for  the  Mountaineer  peach, 
M-hich  was  raised  by  Knight  from  the  red  nutmeg-peacli  by  poHen 
of  the  violette  hative  nectarine,^*  produces  peaches,  but  these  are 
said  sometimes  to  partake  of  the  smoothness  and  llavonr  of  the 
nectarine.  But  let  it  be  observed  that  in  the  previous  list  no  less 
than  six  well-known  varieties  and  several  unnamed  variety's  of  the 
peach  have  once  suddenly  produced  perfect  nectarines  by  bud- 
variation:   and  it  would  be  an  extremely  rash  supposition  that  all 

45  Lonflon's   '  Gardener's  Maga-  -''  Hndron.    '  De  rKspeco.'   torn, 

zine.'  1830.  p.  597.  ii.  P-  97.    ^         ,     ^,  .  _.,.    ,^ 

*'  '^Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1841,        ^    "  .  Gardener  s  Chrnn..    18..t..  p. 

^'  *M'bifl      1844     p     580.  ^    ■'^^•''  Alpli.      De     r.inilolle.      '  Geo- 

•»'•>  '  Phvtoloerist.'  vol.  iv.  p.  290.  graph,    l^ot..'  p.  8S(;.             ^     ^ 

■■0  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  1856,  p.  "'  Thompson    in   Loudon  s     hn- 

531,  cyclop,  of  Gardening,    p.  911. 

24 


356  FRUITS.  Chap.  X. 

these  yarieties  of  the  peach,  which  have  been  cultivated  for  years 
in  many  districts,  and  which  show  not  a  vestige  of  a  mixed"^  par- 
entage, are,  nevertheless,  hybrids.  A  second  explanation  is,  that 
the  fruit  of  the  peach  has  been  directly  affected  by  the  pollen  of 
the  nectarine:  although  this  certainly ^is  possible,  "it  cannot  here 
apply;  for  we  haye  not  a  shadow  of  evidence  that  a  branch 
Avhich  has  borne  fruit  directly  affected  by  foreign  pollen  is  so  pro- 
foundly modified  as  afterwards  to  produce  buds  which  continue 
to  yield  fruit  of  the  new  and  modified  form.  Now  it  is  known 
that  when  a  bud  on  a  peach-tree  has  once  borne  a  nectarine  tlie 
same  branch  has  in  several  instances  gone  on  during  successive 
years  producing  nectarines.  The  Carclew  nectarine,  on  the  other 
hand,  first  produced  half-and-half  fruit,  and  subsequently  pure 
peaches.  Hence  we  may  confidently  accept  the  common  yiew  that 
the  nectarine  is  a  variety  of  the  peach,  which  may  be  produced 
either  by  bud-variation  or  from  seed.  In  the  following  chapter 
many  analogous  cases  of  bud-variation  will  be  given. 

The  yarieties  of  the  peach  and  the  nectarine  run  in  parallel 
lines.  In  both  classes  the  kinds  differ  from  each  other  in  the  flesh 
of  the  fruit  being  white,  red,  or  yellow;  in  being  clingstones  or 
freestones:  m  tlie  flowers  being  large  or  small,  with  certain  other 
characteristic  differences;  and  in  the  leaves  being  serrated  without 
glands,  or  crenated  and  furnished  with  globose  or  reniform  glands.'^ 
We  can  hardly  account  for  this  parallefism  by  supposing  that  each 
variety  of  the  nectarine  is  descended  from  a  Vorrespondmg  variety 
of  the  peach;  for  though  our  nectarines  are  certainly  the^lescend- 
ants  of  several  kinds  of  peaches,  yet  a  large  number  are  the  de- 
scendants of  other  nectarines,  and^  they  vary  so  much  when  thus 
reproduced  that  we  can  scarcely  admit  the  above  explanation. 

The  varieties  of  the  peach  have  largely  increased  in  number 
since  the  Christian  era,  when  from  two  to  five  varieties  were 
known:  ^*^  and  the  nectarine  was  unknown.  At  the  present  time, 
besides  many  varieties  said  to  exist  in  China,  Downing  describes, 
in  the  United  States,  seventy-nine  native  and  imported  varieties 
of  the  peach:  and  a  few  years  ago  Lindley"  enumerated  one 
hundred  and  sixty-four  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine  grown 
in  England.  I  have  already  indicated  the  chief  points  of  difference 
between  the  several  varieties.  Xectarines,  even  when  produced 
from  distinct  kinds  of  peaches,  always  possess  their  own  pecidiar 
flavour,  and  are  smooth  and  small.  Clingstone  and  freestone 
peaches,  which  differ  in  the  ripe  flesh  either  firmly  adhering  to 
the  stone,  or  easily  separating  from  it,  also  differ  in"^  the  character 
of  the  stone  itself:  that  of  the  freestones  or  melters  being  more 
deeply  fissured,   with   the   sides  of  the   fissures   smoother  than  in 

55  '  Catalogue  of  Fruit  in  Gar-  de     Candolle,     '  Geograph.     Bot.,' 

den   of   Horticultural    Soc..'    1842.  p.  88.5. 

p.  105.  57  '  Transact.    Hort.    Soc.,'    vol. 

58  Dr.       A.       Targioni-Tozzetti,  v.  p.  554.     Sre  also  Carriere,  '  De- 

'  Journal     Horticultural     Society,'  scription  et  Class,  des  Variet6s  de 

vol.     ix.     p.     167.       M.     Alphonse  Pechers.' 


Chap.  X.  APRICOTS.  or*- 

clingstones.  In  the  various  kinds  the  flowor.s  difTor  not  onlv  in 
size,  but  m  the  larger  flowers  the  petals  are  dillVrcntlv  sl.a'pcd 
more  imbricated,  generally  red  in  the  centre  and  pair  tt.war.l.s 
the  margin:  whereas  m  the  smaller  flowers  the  margin  of  the 
petal  are  usuall}^  more  darkly  coloured.  One  variety  luis  nearly 
white  flowers.  The  leaves  are  more  or  less  serrated,  and  are  «'iih.T 
destitute  of  glands,  or  have  globose  or  reniform  ghinds;  ••*  and  some 
few  peaches,  such  as  the  Brugnen,  boar  on  tlie  .same  tree  both 
globular  and  kidney-shaped  glands.'*'-'  According  to  Kobertson* 
the  trees  with  glandular  leaves  are  liable  to  blister,  but  not  in  any 
great  degree  to  mildew;  whilst  the  non-glandular  trees  are  more 
subject  to  curl,  to  mildew,  and  to  the  attacks  of  ai)hides.  The 
varieties  differ  in  the  period  of  their  maturity,  in  the  fruit  keeping 
well,  and  in  hardiness, — the  latter  circumstance  being  espeeiallv 
attended  to  in  the  United  States.  Certain  varieties,  such  as  the 
Bellegarde,  stand  forcing  in  hot-houses  better  than  other  varieties. 
The  flat-peach  of  China  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  varieties; 
it  is  so  much  depressed  towards  the  summit,  that  the  stone  is  here 
covered  only  by  roughened  skin  and  not  by  a  fleshy  layer."'  An- 
other Chinese  variety,  called  the  Honey-peach,  is  remarkable  frmu 
the  fruit  terminating  in  a  long  sharp  point;  its  leaves  are  gland- 
less  and  widelj'  dentate.®-  The  Emperor  of  Russia  peach  is  a 
third  singular  variety,  having  deeply  double-serrated  leaves;  the 
fruit  is  deeply  cleft  with  one-half  projecting  considoral)ly  beyond 
the  other:  it  originated  in  America,  and  its  seedlings  inherit  simi- 
lar leaves.^^ 

The  peach  has  also  produced  in  China  a  small  class  of  trees 
valued  for  ornament,  namelv  the  doub]e-flo^\'ered:  of  these,  five 
varieties  are  now  known  in  England,  varying  from  pure  white, 
through  rose,  to  intense  crimson."*  One  of  these  varieties,  called 
the  camellia-flo^^"ered,  bears  flowers  above  2}  inches  in  diameter, 
whilst  those  of  the  fruit-bearing  kinds  do  not  at  most  exceed  1| 
inch  in  diameter.  The  flowers  ojf  the  double-flowered  i)eaches  have 
the  singular  property*'^  of  frequently  producing  double  or  treble 
fruit.  Finally,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  peach  is  an 
almond  profoundly  modified;  but  whatever  its  origin  may  have 
been,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  yielded  during  the  last 
eighteen  centuries  many  varieties,  some  of  them  strongly  charac- 
terised, belonging  both  to  the  nectarine  and  peach    form. 

Apricot  { Primus  armeniaca). — It  is  commonly  admitted  that 
this  tree  is  descended  from  a  single  species,  now  found  wild  in  the 

58  Loudon's  '  Encvclop.  of  Gar-  "^  '  Transact.    Hort.    Six-.,'    vol. 

deninj?,'  p.  907.  iv.  p.  .'il2.  _ 

50  M.       Carriere,       in       '  Gard.  62  '  .Tonrnal     of      IlorticuUtire, 

Chron.,'   186.5,  p.   11.54.  Sept.  8th.  18.5.3,  p.  iss. 

00  '  Transact.    Hort.    Soc.,'    vol.  <'»' Transact.    Ilorl.    Soc.     vol. 

iii.   p.   .332.     See  also   '  Gardener's  vi.  p.  412.  , 

Chronicle.'   1865,   p.    271,   to   same  «••  '  Gardener's  Chronicle.    is..i. 

effect.      Also    '  Journal    of   Horti-  p.  210.  , 

culture,'    Sept.    26th,    1805,    page  "  '  .Journal  of  Ilort.  Soc.     vol. 

254.  ii.  p.  283. 


358 


FRUITS. 


Chap.  X. 


Caucasian  region.*®  On  this  view  the  varieties  deserve  notice,  he- 
cause  they  illustrate  differences  supposed  by  some  botanists  to  be 
of  specific  value  in  the  almond  and  plum.  The  best  monograph 
on  the  apricot  is  by  Mr.  Thompson/'  who  describes  seventeen 
varieties.  We  have  seen  that  peaches  and  nectarines  vary  in  a 
strictlj'  parallel  manner;  and  in  the  apricot,  which  forms  a  closely 
allied  genus,  we  again  meet  with  variations  analogous  to  those  of 
the  peach,  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  plum.  The  varieties  differ 
considerably  in  the  shape  of  their  leaves,  which  are  either  serrated 
or  crenated,  sometimes  with  ear-like  appendages  at  their  bases, 
and  sometimes  with  glands  on  the  petioles.  The  flowers  are  gen- 
erally alike,  but  are  small  in  the  Masculine.  The  frviit  varies 
much  in  size,  shape,  and  in  having  the  suture  little  pronounced 
or  absent;  in  the  skin  being  smooth,  or  downy,  as  in  the  orange- 
apricot;  and  in  the  flesh  clinging  to  the  stone,  as  in  the  last- 
mentioned  kind,  or  in  readily  separating  from  it,  as  in  the  Turkey- 
apricot.  In  all  these  differences  we  see  the  closest  analogy  with 
the  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine.  In  the  stone  we  have 
more  important  differences,  and  these  in  the  case  of  the  plum  have 
been  esteemed  of  specific  value;  in  some  apricots  the  stone  is  al- 
most spherical,  in  others  much  flattened,  being  either  sharp  in 
front  or  blunt  at  both  ends,  sometimes  channelled  along  the  back, 
or  with  a  sharp  ridge  along  both  margins.  In  the  Moorpark,  and 
generally  in  the  Hemskirke,  the  stone  presents  a  singular  charac- 
ter in  being  perforated,  with  a  bundle  of  fibres  passing  through  the 
perforation  from  end  to  end.  The  most  constant  and  important 
character,  according  to  Thompson,  is  whether  the  kernel  is  bitter 
or  sweet:  yet  in  this  respect  we  have  a  graduated  difference,  for 
the  kernel  is  very  bitter  in  Shipley's  apricot ;  in  the  Hemskirke 
less  bitter  than  in  some  other  kinds;  slightly  bitter  in  the  Koyal; 
and  ■'  sweet  like  a  hazel-nut "  in  the  Breda,  Angoumois,  and  others. 
In  the  case  of  the  almond,  bitterness  has  been  thought  by  some 
high  authorities  to  indicate  specific  difference. 

In  N.  America  the  Roman  apricot  endures  "  cold  and  unfavour- 
able situations,  where  no  other  sort,  except  the  Masculine,  will 
succeed;  and  its  blossoms  bear  quite  a  severe  frost  without  in- 
jury." "*  According  to  Mr.  Rivers,'^''  seedling  apricots  deviate  but 
little  from  the  character  of  their  race:  in  France  the  Alberge  is 
constantly  reproduced  from  seed  witli  but  little  variation.  In 
Ladakh,  according  to  Moorcroft,^"  ten  varieties  of  the  apricot,  very 
different  from  each  other,  are  cultivated,  and  all  are  raised  from 
seed,  excepting  one,  which  is  budded. 

Plvms  {Prnmis  insititia). — Formerly  the  sloe,  P.  splnosa,  was 
thought  to  be  the  parent  of  all  our  plums;  but  now  this  honour  is 


««  Alph 
graph.  Bot 


Geo- 


de     Candolle, 
p.  879. 
"  '  Transact.    Hort.    Soc'    (2nd 
series),    vol.    i..    ]88o.    p.    .50.      /S'^<" 
also   '  Cat.   of  Frnit  in  Garden  of 
Hort.  Soc'  .3rd  edit.  1S42. 


*^^  Downing, 


The     Fruits     of 


America,'  1845.  p.  157:  with  re- 
spect to  the  Alberge  apricot  in 
France,  st  p.   1.53. 

'■■^  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1863, 
p.  P>r,4. 

70  '  Travels  in  thp  Himalayan 
Provinces,'   vol.  i.,  1841,  p.   295. 


€A 


Chap.  X. 


PLUMS. 


351) 


very  commonly  accx)rded  to  P.   insititia  or  tlu-  l.i.llac-o,   wl.i.-h   is 
found  wild  in  the  Caucasus  and  X.-Western  India,  and    s  natural- 
ised m  England.-     It  is  not  at  all  improbable,  in  accc.nlanc.  uuh 
some  observations  made  by  Mr.   Rivers/^  that   both   these   forms 
1  2  _,  ,  ' 


6  7 

Fig.  43— Plum  Stones,  of  natural  size,  viewed  latci-nlly.  1.  Rullaco 
Plum.  2.  Shropshire  Damson.  3.  Blue  Gage.  4.  Orleans.  5.  Elvas. 
6.  Denyer's  Victoria.     7.  Diamond. 

which  some  botanists  rank  as  a  single  species,  may  be  the  parents 
of  our  domesticated  plums.  Another  supposed  parent-form,  the 
P.  (Jomestica,  is  said  to  be  found  wild  in  the  region  of  the  Caucasus. 
Godron  remarks '^  that  the  cultivated  varieties  may  be  divided  into 
two  main  groups,  which  he  supposes  to  be  descended  from  two 
aboriginal  stocks;  namely,  those  with  oblong  fruit  and  stone.s 
pointed  at  both  ends,  having  narrow  separate  petals  and  upright 
branches:  and  those  with  rounded  fruit,  with  stones  blunt  at  both 
ends,  with  rounded  petals  and  spreading  branches.  From  what 
we  know  of  the  variability  of  the  flowers  in  the  peach  and  of  the 
diversified  manner  of  growth  in  our  various  fruit-trees,  it  is  dini- 
cult  to  lay  much  weight  on  these  latter  characters.  With  res|)eot 
to  the  shape  of  the  fruit,  we  have  conclusive  evidence  that  it  is 
extremely  variable:   Downing'*  gives  outlines  of  the  plums  of  two 


■^1  See  an  excellent  discussion 
on  this  snb.iect  in  Hewett  C.  Wat- 
sou's  •  Cvbele  Britannica,'  vol.  iv. 
p.  80. 

'-  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1865, 
p.  27. 

"^  '  De  I'Espece,'  torn.  ii.  p.  94. 
On  the  parentage  of  our  plums, 
see  also  Alph.  De  CaudoUe,  '  Geo- 


graph.  Pot..'  p.  878.  Also  Tar- 
gioni-Tozzetti,  '  .Journal  ITort. 
Soe..'  vol.  ix.  p.  lf.4.  Also  llab- 
iuirton.  '  Manual  of  lirit.  Hotany.' 
18.-)1,  p.  87. 

'*  '  Fruits  of  Anu'rli'M.'  pp.  'Ji*>. 
278.  284,  .'no.  :U4.  Mr.  Kivers 
raised  ('  Ganl.  Chron..'  ISC.:?,  p. 
27)   from   the   rrune-peehe.    wliifh 


360  FRUITS.  Chap.  X 

seedlings,  namely,  the  red  and  imperial  gages,  raised  from  the 
greengage;  and  the  fruit  of  both  is  more  elongated  than  that  of 
the  greengage.  The  latter  has  a  very  blunt  broad  stone,  whereas 
the  stone  of  the  imperial  gage  is  "  oval  and  pointed  at  both  ends." 
These  trees  also  differ  in  their  manner  of  growth:  "the  greengage 
is  a  very  short-jointed,  slow-growing  tree,  of  spreading  and  rather 
dwarfish  habit ;  '  whilst  its  offspring,  the  imperial  gage,  "  grows 
freel  yand  rises  rapidly,  and  has  long  dark  shoots."  The  famous 
Washington  plum  bears  a  globular  fruit,  but  its  offspring,  the 
emerald  drop,  is  nearly  as  much  elongated  as  the  most  elongated 
plum  figured  by  Downing,  namely,  Manning's  prune.  I  have  made 
a  small  collection  of  the  stones  of  twenty-five  kinds,  and  they 
graduate  in  shape  from  the  bluntest  into  the  sharpest  kinds.  As 
characters  derived  from  seeds  are  generally  of  high  systematic 
importance,  I  have  thought  it  worth  while  to  give  drawings  of  the 
most  distinct  kinds  in  my  small  collection;  and  they  may  be  seen 
to  differ  in  a  surprising  manner  in  size,  outline,  thickness,  promi- 
nence of  the  ridges,  and  state  of  surface.  It  deserves  notice  that 
the  shape  of  the  stone  is  not  always  strictly  correlated  with  that  of 
the  fruit:  thus  the  Washington  plum  is  spherical  and  depressed  at 
the  pole,  with  a  somewhat  elongated  stone,  whilst  the  fruit  of  the 
Goliath  is  more  elongated,  but  the  stone  less  so,  than  in  the  Wash- 
ington. Again,  Denyer's  Victoria  and  Goliath  bear  fruit  closely 
resembling  each  other,  but  their  stones  are  widelv  different.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Harvest  and  Black  IMargate  plums  are  very 
dissimilar,  yet  include  closely  similar  stones. 

The  varieties  of  the  plum  are  numerous,  and  differ  greatly  in 
size,  shape,  quality,  and  colour, — being  bright  yellow,  green,  almost 
white,  blue,  purple,  or  red.  There  are  some  curious  varieties,  such 
as  the  double  or  Siamese,  and  the  Stoneless  plum:  in  the  latter  the 
kernel  lies  in  a  roomy  cavity  surrounded  only  by  the  pulp.  The 
climate  of  North  America  appears  to  be  singularly  favourable  for 
the  production  of  new  and  good  varieties;  Downing  describes  no 
less  than  forty,  of  which  seven  of  first-rate  quality  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  England.'^  Varieties  occasionally  arise 
having  an  innate  adaptation  for  certain  soils,  almost  as  strongly 
pronounced  as  with  natural  species  growing  on  the  most  distinct 
geological  formations;  thus  in  America  the  imperial  gage,  difi'er- 
ently  from  almost  all  other  kinds,  "  is  peculiarly  fitted  for  dri/  light 
soils  where  many  sorts  drop  their  fruit,"  whereas  on  rich  heavy 
soils  the  fruit  is  often  insipid.'^"  My  father  could  never  succeed  in 
making  the  Wine-Sour  yield  even  a  moderate  crop  in  a  sandy  or- 
chard near  Shrewsbury,  whilst  in  some  parts  of  the  same  county 
and  in  its  native  Yorkshire  it  bears  abundantlv:  one  of  mv  rela- 
tions  also  repeatedly  tried  in  vain  to  grow  this  variety  in  a  sandy 
district  in  Staffordshire. 

bears  larjre,  round,  red  plums  on  "  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1855, 

stout,    robust    shoots,    a    seedling  p.  720. 

which    bears    oval,    smaller    fruit  '*'  Downing's   '  Fruit   Trees,'   p. 

on  shoots  that   are  so  slender  as  278. 

to  be  almost  pendulous. 


Chap.  X.  CHERRIES. 


Q 


Gl 


Mr.  Rivers  has  given"  a  miml^er  of  intorestiiifr  facts,  showing' 
how  truly  many  varieties  can  be  proijagatcd  l)v  mh-jI.  lie  wnvfd 
the  stones  of  twenty  bushels  of  the  green trage  U>v  tin-  bake  of  ruis- 
ing  stocks,  and  closely  observed  the  seedlings;  "all  had  the  smooth 
shoots,  the  prominent  buds,  and  the  glossy  leaves  of  the  grcen<Mpe, 
but  the  greater  number  had  smaller  h-avt-s  and  thorns."'  TIumv  are 
two  kinds  of  damson,  one  the  Shropshire,  with  downv  .shctots.  and 
the  other  the  Kentish  with  smooth  shoots,  and  these  dillVr  but 
slightly  in  any  other  respect:  Mr.  Rivers  soufd  stuiu-  l»u>lu'ls  of 
the  Kentish  damson,  and  all  the  seedlings  had  smooth  shoots,  but 
in  some  the  fruit  was  oval,  in  others  round  or  roundisli,  and  in  a 
few  the  fruit  was  small,  and,  except  in  being  sweet,  closely  resem- 
bled that  of  the  wild  sloe.  Mr.  Rivers  gives  several  other  striking  in- 
stances of  inheritance:  thus,  he  raised  eighty  thousand  seedlings 
from  the  common  German  Quetsche  plum,  and  "  not  one  couhl  l)e 
found  varying  in  the  least,  in  foliage  or  habit."'  Similar  facts  were 
observed  with  the  Petite  Mirabelle  plum,  yet  this  latter  kind  laa 
well  as  the  Quetsche)  is  known  to  have  yielded  some  well-estab- 
lished varieties;  but,  as  Mr.  Rivers  remarks,  they  all  belong  to  the 
same  group  with  the  INIirabelle. 

Cherries  {Pruniis  ccrusus,  avium,  &c.). — Botanists  believe  that 
our  cultivated  cherries  are  descended  from  one,  two,  four,  or  even 
more  wild  stocks.'*  That  there  must  be  at  least  two  parent  sj>e- 
cies  we  may  infer  from  the  sterility  of  twenty  hyl)rids  raised  by 
Mr,  Knight  from  the  morello  fertilized  by  pollen  of  the  Elton 
cherry:  for  these  hybrids  produced  in  all  only  live  cherries,  and  one 
alone'  of  these  contained  a  seed."  Mr.  Thompson  ^'  has  classified 
the  varieties  in  an  apparently  natural  method  in  two  main  groups 
by  characters  taken  from  the  flowers,  fruit,  and  leaves:  but  some 
varieties  which  stand  widely  separate  in  this  classification  are 
quite  fertile  when  crossed;  thus  Knight's  Early  Black  cherries  is 
the  product  of  a  cross  between  two  such  kinds. 

Mr.  Knight  states  that  seedling  chenies  are  more  variable  than 
those  of  any  other  fruit-tree.*'  In  the  Catalogue  of  the  Horticul- 
tural Society  for  1842,  eighty  varieties  are  enumerated.  Some  va- 
rieties present  singular  characters:  thus,  the  flower  of  the  Cluster 
cherry  includes  as  many  as  twelve  pistils,  of  Avhich  the  majority 
abort;  and  they  are  said  generally  to  produce  froin  two  to  five 
or  six  cherries  aggregated  together  and  borne  on  a  single  pe.lunch-. 
In  the  Ratafia  cheri-y  several  flower-peduncles  arise  from  a  emn- 
mon  peduncle,  upwards  of  an  inch  in  length.  Tlie  fruit  of  (Jas- 
coigne's  Heart  has  its  apex  produced  into  a  globule  or  drop:   that 

77  '  Gardener's  Chronicle.'  1808,  tham    and     Tiirsioni-Tozzetli.     in 

p.  27.     Sajreret.  in  his  '  Pomolosrie  '  Hort.    J?'l\""='  ^„y;'^;  J^'    ';:,/'V,' 

Phys..'    p.    346.     enumerates    five  Godron,       De    1  Lspcce.     t<.m.    M. 

kinds  which  can  be  propairated  in  p.  02.  .        , 

France   l)v   seed:    see   also   Down-  '■" JrnnsMct.    Iloit.    Soc.     ^ol. 

ins's    •  Frnit    Trees    of    America,'  v.,  1S24.  p.  -.»■>. 

pp.  305,  312.  &c.  .!!  I''''lv./*'''""'^    '*'•■'• 

7«  Compare  Alph.   De  Caudolle,        1S3.>.  p.  --is. 
♦  Geograph.    Bot.,'    p.    877;    Ben-  *'  Ibid.,  vol.  li.  i».  l.to. 


362 


FRUITS. 


Chap.  X. 


of  the  white  Hungarian  Gean  has  almost  transparent  flesh.  The 
Flemish  cherry  is  "  a  very  odd-looking  fruit/'  much  flattened  at  the 
summit  and  base,  with  the  latter  deeply  furrowed,  and  borne  on  a 
stout,  very  short  footstalk.  In  the  Kentish  cherry  the  stone  ad- 
heres  so  firmly  to  the  footstalk,  that  it  could  be  drawn  out  of  the 
flesh;  and  this  renders  the  fruit  well  fitted  for  drying.  The  To- 
bacco-leaved cherry,  according  to  Sageret  and  Thompson,  produces 
gigantic  leaves,  more  than  a  foot  and  sometimes  even  eighteen 
inches  in  length,  and  half  a  foot  in  breadth.  The  weeping  cherry, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  valuable  only  as  an  ornament,  and.  according 
to  Downing,  is  "  a  charming  little  tree,  with  slender,  weeping 
branches,  clothed  with  small,  almost  myrtle-like  foliage."  There 
is  also  a  peach-leaved  variety. 

Sageret  describes  a  remarkable  variety,  le  griottier  de  la  Tons- 
saint,  which  bears  at  the  same  time,  even  as  late  as  September, 
flowers  and  fruit  of  all  degrees  of  maturity.  The  fruit,  which  is 
of  inferior  quality,  is  borne  on  long,  very  thin  footstalks.  But  the 
extraordinary  statement  is  made  that  all  the  leaf-bearino:  shoots 
spring  from  old  flower-buds.  Lastly,  there  is  an  important  physio- 
logical distinction  between  those  kinds  of  cherries  which  bear 
fruit  on  young  or  on  old  wood;  but  Sageret  positively  asserts  that 
a  Bigarreau  in  his  garden  bore  fruit  on  wood  of  both  ages.*^ 

AjwJe  {Pynis  mali(s). — The  one  source  of  doubt  felt  by  bota- 
nists with  respect  to  the  parentage  of  the  apple  is  whether,  besides 
P.  mains,  two  or  three  other  closely  allied  wild  forms,  namely,  P. 
acerha  and  prwcox  or  paradisiaca,  do  not  deserve  to  be  ranked  as 
distinct  species.  The  P.  prwcox  is  supposed  by  some  authors  ®^  to 
be  the  parent  of  the  dwarf  paradise  stock,  '\\hich,  owing  to  the 
fibrous  roots  not  penetrating  deeply  into  the  ground,  is  so  largely 
used  for  grafting;  but  the  paradise  stocks,  it  is  asserted,**  cannot 
be  propagated  true  by  seed.  The  common  wild  crab  varies  consid- 
erably in  England;  but  many  of  the  varieties  are  believed  to  be 
escaped  seedlings.*^  Every  one  knows  the  great  dift'erence  in  the 
manner  of  growth,  in  the  foliage,  flowers,  and  especially  in  the 
fruit,  between  the  almost  innumerable  varieties  of  the  apple.  The 
pips  or  seeds  (as  I  know  by  comparison)  likewise  difl"er  consider- 
ably in  shape,  size,  and  colour.     The  fruit  is  adapted  for  eating  or 


S2  These  several  statements  are 
taken  from  the  four  following 
works,  which  may,  I  believe,  be 
trusted:  Thompson,  in  '  Hort. 
Transact..'    srf    above:     Sageret's 


Pomologie  Phys.,'  1830,   pp. 


358, 


364,  36",  379:  'Catalogue  of  the 
Fruit  in  the  Garden  of  Hort. 
Soc.,'  1842,  pp.  .57,  60;  Downing, 
'  The  Fruits  of  America,'  1845,  pp. 
189,  195.   200. 

83  Mr.  Lowe  states  in  his  '  Flora 
of  Madeira  '  (quoted  in  '  Gard. 
Chron.,  1862,  p.  215)  that  the  P. 
mains,  with  its  nearly  sessile 
fruit,    I'anges   farther   south   than 


the  long-stalked  P.  ar-rrlm.  which 
is  entirely  absent  in  Madeira,  the 
Canaries,"  and  apparently  in  Por- 
tugal. This  fact  supports  the  be- 
lief that  these  two  forms  deserve 
to  be  called  species.  But  the 
characters  separating  them  are  of 
slight  importance,  and  of  a  kind 
known  to  vary  in  other  cultivated 
fruit-trees. 

8*  ^er  '  Journ.  of  Hort.  Tour, 
bv  Deputation  of  the  Caledonian 
Hort.   Soc.,'  1823.  p.  4.59. 

85  H.  C.  Watson,  '  Cybele  Bri- 
tannica,'  vol.  i.  p.  334. 


Chap.  X.  APPLES.  3^3 

for  cooking  in  various  waj^s,  and  keeps  for  onlv  a  few  weeks  or  for 
nearly  two  years.  Some  few  kinds  have  the  fniit  eovere.l  with  a 
powdery  secretion,  called  bloom,  like  that  on  plums;  and  "it  in 
extremely  remarkable  that  this  occurs  almost  exciusivelv  aiiu.nir 
varieties  cultivated  in  Russia."""  Anotlier  Russian  apple,  the 
white  Astracan,  possesses  the  singular  pn)i)erty  of  becoming  trans- 
parent, when  ripe,  like  some  sorts  of  crabs. '  The  «/;/  rtoil^  has 
five  prominent  ridges,  hence  its  name;  the  din  noir  is  nearly  black: 
the  twin  cluster  piitinn  often  bears  fruit  joined  in  pairs."'  The  treeti 
of  the  several  sorts  dillef  greatly  in  their  i>erj(»(U  of  lealing  and 
flowering;  in  my  orchard  the  Court  I'cndu  Plat  produces  leaves  ho 
late,  that  during  several  springs  I  thought  that  it  was  dead.  The 
Tiffin  apple  scarcely  bears  a  leaf  when  in  full  bloom;  tiio  Cornish 
crab,  on  the  other  hand,  bears  so  many  leaves  at  this  period  that 
the  flowers  can  hardly  be  seen.*"  In  some  kinds  the  fruit  rijM'ns 
in  midsummer;  in  others,  late  in  the  autumn.  These  several  di!Tcr- 
ences  in  leafing,  flowering,  and  fruiting,  are  not  at  all  necessarily 
correlated;  for,  as  Andrew  Knight  has  remarked.''''  no  one  can 
judge  from  the  early  flowering  of  a  new  seedling,  or  from  the 
early  shedding  or  change  of  colour  of  the  leaves,  whether  it  \\\\\ 
mature  its  fruit  early  in  the  season. 

The  varieties  differ  greatly  in  constitution.  It  is  notorious 
that  our  summers  are  not  hot  enough  for  the  Newtown  Pi])pin,** 
which  is  the  glory  of  the  orchards  near  New  York;  and  so  it  is 
with  several  varieties  which  we  have  imported  from  tlie  Continent. 
On  the  other  hand,  our  Court  of  Wick  succeeds  well  under  the 
severe  climate  of  Canada.  The  Calrillc  rou(/e  dc  Micoinl  occasion- 
ally bears  two  crops  during  the  same  year.  The  l>urr  Knot  is  cov- 
ered with  small  excrescences,  which  emit  roots  so  readilv  that  a 
branch  with  blossom-buds  may  be  stuck  in  the  ground,  and  will 
root  and  bear  a  few  fruit  even  during  the  first  year.'-"  Mr.  Rivers 
has  recently  described''"  some  seedlings  valuable  from  their  roots 
running  near  the  surface.  One  of  these  seedlings  was  remarkable 
from  its  extremely  dwarfed  size,  "forming  itself  into  a  bush  only 
a  few  inches  in  height."  Many  varieties  are  particularly  liable  to 
canker  in  certain  soils.  But  perhaps  the  strangest  const ilutiomil 
peculiarity  is  that  the  Winter  Majetin  is  not  attacked  by  the 
mealy  bug  or  coccus;  Lindley '^^  states  that  in  an  orchard  in  Nt)r- 
folk  'infested  with  these  insects  the  Majetin  was  quite  free,  though 

»«  Loudon's   '  Gardener's  Mag.,'  pie-Tree,    in    'Transact,   of   Ilort. 

vol.  vi.,  1830,  p.  83.  Soc.,'  vol.  vi.  p.  2LMI. 

"  See    '  Cntalogne    of    Fruit    in  ^i  '  Transact.    Ilort.    S..c..'    vol. 

Garden  of  Hort.   Soc.,'   1842.   and  i..  1812.  p.  120. 
Downing's         '  American        Fruit  '■'-  '  .Tonrnal     of     Horticulturo. 

Trees.'  March  l.'^tli.  ISOO.  p.  l!tl. 

»«  London's   'Gardener's  Maga-  '•••'•  Transact.    II<»rt.    Soc.'    vol. 

zine,'  vol.  iv.,  1828,  p.  112.  iv.   p.  08.     For  KniL'lifs  case,  nrr 

*9  '  The  Culture  of  the  Apple,'  vol.   vi.   p.  ."'.47.      When  the  rorrmt 

p.  43.     Van  Mons  makes  the  same  first  appeared   in   tills  count r.v.    It 

remark  on  the  pear,  'Arbres  Frui-  is  said  (vol.  il.  p.  KWil  that  It   was 

tiers,'   torn     ii.   p.   414.  more      injurious      to      craitstocks 

90  Lindlev's    'Horticulture,'    p.  than    to    the    apples    urafle.l    otr 

116.     Sec  also  Kuight  ou  the  Ap-  them.       The     Majetui    apple    has 


364 


FRUITS. 


Chap.  X. 


the  stock  on  which  it  was  grafted  was  affected:  Knight  makes  a 
^similar  statement  with  respect  to  a  cider  apple,  and  adds  that  he 
only  once  saw  these  insects  just  above  the  stock,  but  that  three 
days  afterwards  they  entirely  disappeared ;  this  apple,  however,  was 
raised  from  a  cross  between  the  Golden  Harvej^  and  the  Siberian 
Crab;  and  the  latter,  I  believe,  is  considered  by  some  authors  as 
specifically  distinct. 

The  famous  St.  Valeiy  apple  must  not  be  passed  over;  the 
flower  has  a  double  cah^x  with  ten  divisions,  and  fourteen  styles 
surmounted  by  conspicuous  oblique  stigmas,  but  is  destitute  of 
stamens  or  corolla.  The  fruit  is  constricted  round  the  middle,  and 
is  formed  of  five  seed-cells,  surmounted  by  nine  other  cells.^*  Not 
being  provided  with  stamens,  the  tree  requires  artificial  fertili- 
sation; and  the  girls  of  St.  Valery  annually  go  to  "  fa  ire  ses 
pommes,"  each  marking  her  own  fruit  with  a  ribbon;  and  as  dif- 
ferent pollen  is  used  the  fruit  differs,  and  we  here  have  an  in- 
stance of  the  direct  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  mother  plant. 
These  monstrous  apples  inchide,  as  we  have  seen,  fourteen  seed- 
cells;  the  pigeon-apple,"^  on  the  other  hand,  has  only  four,  instead 
■of,  as  with  all  common  apples,  five  cells;  and  this  certainly  is  a 
remarkable  difference. 

In  the  catalogue  of  apples  published  in  1842  by  the  Horticul- 
tural Society,  897  varieties  are  enumerated;  but  the  differences 
between  most  of  them  are  of  comparatively  little  interest,  as  they 
are  not  strictly  inherited.  No  one  can  raise,  for  instance,  from  the 
seed  of  the  Ribston  Pippin,  a  tree  of  the  same  kind;  and  it  is  said 
that  the  "  Sister  Ribston  Pippin  "  ^vas  a  white  semi-transparent, 
sour-fleshed  apple,  or  rather  large  erab.^"  Yet  it  was  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  with  most  varieties  the  characters  are  not  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  inherited.  In  two  lots  of  seedlings  raised  from  two 
well-marked  kinds,  many  worthless  crab-like  seedlings  will  appear, 
but  it  is  now  known  that  the  two  lots  not  only  usually  differ  from 
each  other,  but  resemble  to  a  certain  extent  their  parents.  We  see 
this  indeed  in  the  several  sub-groups  of  Russets,  Sweetings,  Cod- 


Iseen  fonnrl  equally  free  of  the 
coccus  at  Melbourne  in  Australia 
•('  Gard.  Cliron..'  1871.  p.  10G5). 
The  wood  of  this  tree  has  been 
there  analysed,  and  it  is  said  (but 
the  fact  seems  a  strantre  one) 
that  its  ash  contained  over  50  per 
cent,  of  lime,  while  that  of  the 
crab  exhibited  not  quite  23  per 
cent.  In  Tasmania  Mr.  Wade 
('  Transact.  New  Zealand  Insti- 
tute.' vol  iv..  1871.  p.  4.31)  raised 
seedlin.s-s  of  the  Siberian  Bitter 
Sweet  for  stocks,  and  he  found 
barely  one  per  cent,  of  them  at- 
tacked by  the  coccus.  Riley 
shows  ('  Fifth  Report  on  Insects 
of  Missouri.'  1873.  p.  87)  that  in 
the  United  States  some  varieties 
of  apples  are  highly  attractive  to 


the  coccus  and  others  very  little 
so.  Turnins:  to  a  very  different 
pest,  namely  the  caterpillar  of 
a  moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonclla), 
Walsh  affirms  ('  The  American 
Entomologist.'  April.  1809.  p.  I(i0) 
that  the  maiden-blush  "  is  entire- 
ly exempt  from  appl  ^-v.-orms." 
So,  it  is  said,  are  some  few  other 
varieties;  whereas  others  are 
"  peculiarly  subject  to  the  at- 
tacks of  this  little  pest." 

'■'*  *  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Linn,  de 
Paris.'  tom.  iii..  1825.  p.  1(14:  and 
Seringe,  '  Bulletin  Bot.,'  1830,  p. 
117. 

05  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1849, 
p.  24. 

^'5  R.  Thompson,  in  'Gardener's 
Chron.,'  1850,  p.  788. 


Chap.  X.  PEARS— STRxVWBERRIES.  3O5 

lins,  Pearmains,  Reinettes,  (fce.,"'  whicli  are  all  boliovc<l.  an.l  many 
are  known,  to  be  descended  from  other  varieties  i)earin^'  the  saiii'o 
names. 

Pears  {Pyrus  communis).— I  need  say  liule  on  lids  fruit,  which 
varies  much  in  the  wild  state,  and  to  an  extraordinary  di-^Mee 
when  cultivated,  in  its  fruit,  flowers,  and  foliage.  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  botanists  in  Europe,  M.  Deeaisne,  has  carefully 
studied  the  many  varieties;  ^^  although  he  formerly  believed  that 
they  \vere  derived  from  more  than  one  species,  he  now  thinks  that 
all  belong  to  one.  He  has  arrived  at  this  conclusion  from  linding 
in  the  several  varieties  a  perfect  gradation  between  the  most  ex- 
treme characters;  so  perfect  is  this  gradation  that  he  maintains 
it  to  be  impossible  to  classify  the  varieties  by  any  natural  nietli(»d, 
M.  Decaisne  raised  many  seedlings  from  four  distinct  kintls,  an<l 
has  carefully  recorded  the  variations  in  each.  Notwithstanding 
this  extreme  degree  of  variability,  it  is  now  positively  known  that 
many  kinds  reproduce  by  seed  the  leading  characters  of  tlieir  race." 

^traiDherries  {Fragaria). — This  fruit  is  remarkable  on  account 
of  the  number  of  species  which  have  been  cultivated,  and  from 
their  rapid  improvement  within  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years.  Let 
any  one  compare  the  fruit  of  one  of  the  largest  varieties  exhibiteil 
at  our  Shows  with  that  of  the  wild  wood  strawberry,  or,  which 
will  be  a  fairer  comparison,  with  the  somewhat  larger  fruit  of  the 
Avild  American  Virginian  Strawberry,  and  he  will  see  what  prodi- 
gies horticulture  has  effected.^""  The  number  of  varieties  has  like- 
wise increased  in  a  surprisingly  rapid  manner.  Only  three  kimls 
were  known  in  France,  in  174G,  where  this  fruit  was  early  culti- 
vated. In  17G6  five  species  had  been  introduced,  the  same  which 
are  now  cultivated,  but  only  five  varieties  of  Fragaria  vcsra.  with 
some  sub-varieties,  had  been  produced.  At  the  present  day  the 
varieties  of  the  several  species  are  almost  innumerable.  The  spe- 
cies consist  of,  firstly,  the  wood  or  Alpine  cultivated  strawl)erries, 
descended  from  F.  resca,  a  native  of  Europe  and  of  North  Amenca. 
There  are  eight  wild  European  varieties,  as  ranked  by  Duchesne, 
of  F.  resca,  but  several  of  these  are  considered  species  by  some 
botanists.  Secondly,  the  green  strawberries,  desceiuled  from  the 
Europan  F.  coJind,  and  little  cultivated  in  England.  Ihirdly, 
the  Hautbois,  from  the  European  F.  elatoir.    Fourthly,  the  J>ear- 

lo-ique,'  1830,  p.  263.     Downinsr's       vated    ^tra^^  hen  us    .  i  •      > 

'  rl^vnit    Ti-fipsi  '    nn     1,30     1.34     130,        scondants     of     /•.     (jiainnnoi  n     ui 

'De    rOrigine    des    diyerses    Va-       ftate.     Metlm^^^^^ 


rietes.'   in  Mem.    de   I'Ar-ad.   ImP-  ing,      Alj;"  ^;  .••,.,;,.;  ."wt   size, 

de    Lvon,    torn,    ii.,    18.52,    pp.    0.5,  mense  ^»"  i    t,,    t  lu     <e Vt  .)n    de- 

114.  „:Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1850,  J^^.^-'-^;,  ')\  %,i:;,^::,%u^ 

PPo,'/:^:    '■;?;_  ^.,,.„«  ,   T,iv  fith.  the  fruit  of  this  spe.-ies,  as  I  hear 


-  '  Comptes  Rendns,'  July  Gth,        the  f  rm    .jr  rms  sj;  <  ■  -  -.^^^^  •■  "^ 


366  FRUITS.  Chap.  X. 

lets  descended  from  F.  virginiana,  a  native  of  the  whole  breadth 
of  North  America.  Fifthly,  the  Chili,  descended  from  P.  chiloetisis, 
an  inhabitant  of  the  west  coast  of  the  temperate  parts  both  of 
North  and  South  America.  Lastly,  the  pines  or  Carol inas  (in- 
cluding the  old  Blacks),  which  have  been  ranked  by  most  authors 
under  the  name  of  F.  yrandiflora  as  a  distinct  species,  said  to  in- 
habit Surinam;  but  this  is  a  manifest  error.  This  form  is  consid- 
ered by  the  highest  authority,  ]M.  Gay,  to  be  merely  a  strongly 
marked  race  of  F.  chiloensis.^"^  These  five  or  six  forms  have  been 
ranked  by  most  botanists  as  specifically  distinct;  but  this  may 
be  doubted,  for  Andrew  Knight,^°-  who  raised  no  less  than  400 
crossed  strawberries,  asserts  that  the  F.  virginiana,  chilocnsis 
and  grand i flora  "  may  be  made  to  breed  together  indiscriminate- 
ly," and  he  found,  in  accordance  with  the  principle  of  analogous 
variation,  "  that  similar  varieties  could  be  obtained  from  the  seeds 
of  any  one  of  them." 

Since  Knight's  time  there  is  abundant  and  additional  evi- 
dence ^°^  of  the  extent  to  which  the  American  forms  spontaneously 
cross.  We  owe  indeed  to  such  crosses  most  of  our  choicest  exist- 
ing varieties.  Knight  did  not  succeed  in  crossing  the  European 
wood-strawberry  with  the  American  Scarlet  or  with  the  Hautbois. 
Mr.  Williams  of  Pitmaston,  however,  succeeded;  but  the  hybrid 
oftspring  from  the  Hautbois,  though  fruiting  well,  never  produced 
seed,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  one,  which  reproduced  the 
parent  hybrid  form.^°*  Major  R.  Trevor  Clarke  informs  me  that 
he  crossed  two  members  of  the  Pine  class  (Myatt's  B.  Queen  and 
Keen's  Seedling)  with  the  wood  and  hautbois,  and  that  in  each 
case  he  raised  only  a  single  seedling;  one  of  these  fruited,  but 
was  almost  barren,  Mr.  W.  Smith,  of  York,  has  raised  similar 
hybrids  with  equally  poor  success. ^°^  We  thus  see  ^'"^  that  the 
European  and  American  species  can  with  some  difficulty  be  crossed ; 
but  it  is  improbable  that  hybrids  sufficiently  fertile  to  be  worth 
cultivation  will  ever  be  thus  produced.  This  fact  is  surprising, 
as  these  forms  structurally  are  not  widely  distinct,  and  are  some- 
times connected  in  the  districts  where  they  grow  wild,  as  I  hear 
from  Professor  Asa  Gray,  by  puzzling  intermediate  forms. 

The  energetic  culture  of  the  Strawberry  is  of  recent  date,  and 
the  cultivated  varieties  can  in  most  case  be  classed  under  some 
one  of  the  above  native  stocks.  As  the  American  strawberries 
cross  so  freely  and  spontaneously,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  they 
will  ultimately  become  inextricablv  confused.  We  find,  indeed, 
that  horticulturists  at  present  disagree  under  which  class  to  rank 

101  <  Lg  Fraisier.'  par  le  Comte  i"*  '  Transaot.   Hort.    Soc.,'   vol. 

L.  de  Lambertye,  1864,  p.  50.  v.,   1824.  p.  294. 

i"2  '  Transact.    Hort.    Soc.,'   vol.  lo^  •  .Jonrnal     of     Horticultiu-e.* 

iii.,  1820,  p.  207.  Dec.   .30th.   1862.   p.   770.     See  also 

^o"*  See  an  account  by  Prof.  De-  Mr.    Prince    to    the    same    effect, 

caisne.    and    by    others    in    '  Gar-  ibid..  1863,  p.  418. 
dener's    Chronicle,'    1862.    p.    .33.5.  i"«  For   additional    evidence  see 

and    1858.    p.    172;    and    Mr.    Bar-  '  Journal    of    Horticulture,'    Dec. 

net's  paper  in   Hort.   Soc.    Trans-  9th,  1862,  p.  721. 
act.,'  vol.  vi.,  1826,  p.  170. 


Chap.  X.  STRAWBERRIES. 


3r,T 


some  few  of  the  varieties;  and  a  writer  in  tlio  '  IJon  Janlini«-r ' 
of  1840  remarks  that  formerly  it  was  possible  to  rhiss  all  nf  tlimi 
under  some  one  species,  but  that  now  this  is  (juite  iinpo.ssjbh-  wiih 
the  American  forms,  the  new  English  varieties  havin<;  coinplelely 
filled  up  the  gaps  between  them.'*"  The  blending  logetluT  <.f  two 
or  more  aboriginal  forms,  which  tliere  is  every  reason  to  lu-lirve 
has  occurred  with  some  of  our  anciently  cultivaU-d  productiouH, 
we  see  now  actually  occurring  with  our  strawberries. 

The  cultivated  species  oiler  some  variations  worth  not  i.e.  'ilie 
Black  Trince,  a  seedling  "from  Keen's  Imperial  (this  latter  lu-ing 
a  seedling  of  a  very  white  strawberry,  the  white  Cart)linu),  i.4 
remarkable  from  "  its  pecvdiar  dark  and  polished  surface,  and 
from  presenting  an  appearance  entirely  uidike  that  of  any  otlier 
kind."^"**  Although  the  fruit  in  the  dillerent  varieties  di'lFers  mt 
greatly  in  form,  size,  colour,  and  quality,  the  so-called  .seed  (wliidi 
corresponds  with  the  whole  fruit  in  the  plum)  with  the  exc«'pti«)n 
of  being  more  or  less  deeply  embedded  in  the  pulp,  is,  aeconling 
to  De  Jonghe,^°^  absolutely  the  same  in  all:  and  this  no  doubt 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  seed  being  of  no  value,  and  eonso- 
quently  not  having  been  subjected  to  selection.  The  stiawbeiry 
is  properly  three-leaved,  but  in  17G1  Duchesne  raised  a  single- 
leaved  variety  of  the  European  wood-strawberry,  which  Limueus 
doubtfully  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  species.  Seedlings  of  this  va- 
riety, like  those  of  most  varieties  not  fixed  by  long-continued  se- 
lection, often  revert  to  the  ordinary  form,  or  present  inteiinediate 
states.""  A  variety  raised  by  Mr.  Myatt,"'  apparently  belonging 
to  one  of  the  American  forms  presents  a  variation  of  an  opposite 
nature,  for  it  has  five  leaves;  Godrou  and  Lambertye  also  nu-ntion 
a  five-leaved  variety  of  F.  coUina. 

The  Red  Bush  Alpine  strawberry  (one  of  the  F.  irKca  section) 
does  not  produce  stolons  or  runners,  and  this  remarkable  deviation 
of  structure  is  reproduced  truly  by  seed.  Anotlier  sub-variety, 
the  ^yhite  Bush  Alpine,  is  similarly  characterised,  but  when  propa- 
gated by  seed  it  often  degenerates  and  produces  plants  with  run- 
ners."- A  strawberry  of  the  American  Pine  section  is  also  .said 
to  make  but  few  runners."^ 

I^.luch  has  been  written  on  the  sexes  of  strawberries:  the  true 
Hautbois  properly  bears  the  male  and  female  organs  on  separate 
plants,"*  and  was  consequently  named  by  Duchesne  ilioim ;  but 
it  frequently  produces  hermaphrodites;  and  LiiuUey.'"  by  propa- 
gating such  plants  by  runners,  at  the  same  time  destroying  the 
males"  soon   raised   a   self-prolific   stock.     The   other  species   often 

107  '  Le  Fraisier,'  par  le  Comte  i"  '  Gardener's     (Muon./     ls.'>l, 

Le  de  Lambertye,   pages  221  and       p.  440.  .,•...  i  ,.  r-- 

Vos  .  Transact.  Hort.    Soc.,'   vol.  Chron   '  isr.2.  p.  Ura.  ^ 

yi    p    OQO  "    Downing  s  '  Fndts.    p.  .'.rJ. 

■io»  "Gardener's     Chron.,'     1858,  I'Miamet,     in     '  Hort.     Trans- 

p    17,3  act.,    vol.  VI.  p.  JiO. 

»o  oodron,   '  De  I'Espece,'  torn.  "•'^  '  Gardener's     Chrun..'     IMi. 

i.   p.   IGl.  P-  ^39. 


368  FRUITS.  Chap.  X. 

showed  a  tendency  towards  an  imperfect  separation  of  the  sexes, 
as  I  have  noticed  with  plants  forced  in  a  hot-liouse.  Several  Eng- 
lish varieties,  which  in  this  country  are  free  from  any  sucli  ten- 
dency, when  cultivated  in  rich  soils  under  the  climate  of  North 
America""  commonly  produce  plants  with  separate  sexes.  Thus 
a  whole  acre  of  Keen's  Seedlings  in  the  United  States  has  been 
observed  to  be  almost  sterile  from  the  absence  of  male  flowers; 
but  the  more  general  rule  is,  that  the  male  plants  overrun  the 
females.  Some  members  of  the  Cincinnati  Horticultural  Society, 
especially  appointed  to  investigate  this  subject,  report  that  "  few 
A'arieties  have  the  flowers  perfect  in  both  sexual  organs,"  &c.  The 
most  successful  cultivators  in  Ohio  plant  for  every  seven  rows  of 
"  pistillata,"  or  female  plants,  one  row  of  hermaphrodites,  which 
afford  pollen  for  both  kinds;  but  the  hermaphrodites,  owing  to 
their  expenditure  in  the  production  of  pollen,  bear  less  fruit  than 
the  female  plants. 

The  varieties  differ  in  constitution.  Some  of  our  best  English 
kinds,  such  as  Keen's  Seedlings,  are  too  tender  for  certain  parts 
of  Xorth  America,  where  other  English  and  many  American  varie- 
ties succeed  perfectly.  That  splendid  fruit,  the  British  Queen,  can 
be  cultivated  but  in  few  places  either  in  England  or  France:  but 
this  apparently  depends  more  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  than  on 
the  climate;  a  famous  gardener  says  that  "no  mortal  could  grow 
the  British  Queen  at  Shrubland  Park  unless  the  whole  nature  of 
the  soil  was  altered." ""  La  Constantine  is  one  of  the  hardiest 
kinds,  and  can  withstand  Russian  winters,  but  it  is  easily  burnt 
by  the  sun,  so  that  it  will  not  succeed  in  certain  soils  either  in 
England  or  the  United  States."**  The  Filbert  Pine  Strawberry 
"requires  more  water  than  any  other  variety;  and  if  the  plants 
once  suffer  from  drought,  they  will  do  little  or  no  good  after- 
wards." "'^  Cuthill's  Black  Prince  Strawberry  evinces  a  singular 
tendency  to  mildew;  no  less  than  six  cases  have  been  recorded  of 
this  variety  suffering  severely,  whilst  other  varieties  growing  close 
by,  and  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  were  not  at  all  in- 
fested by  this  fungus.^-"  The  time  of  maturity  differs  much  in 
the  different  varieties:  some  belonging  to  the  wood  or  alpine  sec- 
tion produce  a  succession  of  crops  throughout  the  summer. 

Gooseherry  {Rihes  grossularia) .■ — Xo  one,  I  believe,  has  hitherto 
doubted  that  all  the  cultivated  kinds  are  sprung  from  the  wild 
plant  bearing  this  name,  which  is  common  in  Central  and  Xorth- 
ern  Europe;  therefore  it  will  be  desirable  briefly  to  specify  all  the 
points,  though  not  very  important,  which  have  varied.     If  it  be 

ne  Yov  the   several   statements  the  Continent,   see  F.    Gloede,    in 

with     respect     to     the     American  '  Gardener's    Chronicle,'    1862,    p. 

strawberries,         see         Downing,  1053. 

•Fruits.'      p.      524;      'Gardener's  "«  Rev.     W.     F.     Radclj-ffe,     in 

Chronicle,'   1843.   p.   188;   1847,   p.  '  Journal     of     Hort.,'     March     14, 

539:  1861,  p.  717.  1865.  p.  207. 

1"  Mr.   D.   Beaton,   in   '  Cottage  "»  Mr.    H.   Doubleday  in   '  Gar- 
Gardener,'    1860,   p.   86.      See  also  dener's  Chron.,'  1862,  p.  1101. 
'Cottage   Gardener,'   1855,    p.   88,  i-'" Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1854, 
and  many  other  authorities.     For  p.  254. 


Chap.  X.  THE   GOOSEBERRY. 


SiVj 


admitted  that  these  differences  are  due  to  culture,  authors  perhaps 
AVill  not  be  so  ready  to  assume  the  existence  of  a  larue  nuii.l».r 
of  unknown  wild  parent-stocks  for  our  other  cultivatea  pjanls 
The  gooseberry  is  not  alluded  to  by  writers  of  ll,,.  classical  .cri.Ml' 
Turner  mentions  it  in  1573,  and  Parkinson  sju'cilics  ci.rl.t  varii-ticH 
in  1G29  5  the  Catalogue  of  the  Horticultural  Sociclv  f<7r  \A4'>  mv«vs 
149  varieties,  and  the  lists  of  the  Lancashire  nursl.rymen  are  siiid 
to  include  above  300  names.^-^  In  the  '  Goo.scl)crrv  ( J  rower's  Kim'- 
ister'  for  18G2  I  find  that  243  distinct  varieties  jiave  won  pri/fH 
at  various  periods,  so  that  a  vast  number  must  have  been  exhihite<l. 
No  doubt  the  difference  between  many  of  the  varieties  is  very 
small;  but  Mr.  Thompson  in  classifying  the  fruit  f(»r  the  Horti- 
cultural Society  found  less  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  of  the 
gooseberry  than  of  any  other  fruit,  and  he  attributes  this  "to  the 
great  interest  which  the  prize  growers  have  taken  in  deteetin-' 
sorts  Mith  wrong  names,"  and  this  shows  that  all  the  kinds.  inT 
merous  as  they  are,  can  be  recognised  with  certainty. 

The  bushes  differ  in  their  manner  of  growth,  being  erect,  or 
spreading,  or  pendulous.  The  periods  of  leafing  and  flowering 
differ  both  absolutely  and  relatively  to  each  other;  thus  the  White^ 
smith  produces  early  flowers,  which  from  not  being  protected  by 
the  foliage,  as  it  is  believed,  continually  fail  tt)  itioduce  fruit.'^'' 
The  leaves  vary  in  size,  tint,  and  in  depth  of  lobes:  they  are 
smooth,  downy,  or  hairy  on  the  upper  surface.  The  branches  are 
more  or  less  downy  or  spinose;  "the  Hedgehog  has  probably  de- 
rived its  name  from  the  singular  bristly  condition  of  its  siioots 
and  fruit."  The  branches  of  the  wild  gooseberry,  I  may  remark, 
are  smooth,  with  the  exception  of  thorns  at  the  bases  of'the  buds. 
The  thorns  themselves  are  either  very  small,  few,  and  single,  or 
very  large  and  triple;  they  are  sometimes  reflexed  and  much  di- 
lated at  their  bases.  In  the  different  varieties  the  fruit  varies  in 
abundance,  in  the  period  of  maturity,  in  hanging  until  shrivelled, 
and  greatly  in  size,  "some  sorts  having  their  fruit  huge  dining 
a  very  early  period  of  growth,  whilst  others  are  small,  until  nciirly 
ripe."  The  fruit  varies  also  much  in  colour,  being  red.  yellow, 
green,  and  white — the  pulp  of  one  dark-red  goosebeiry  being 
tinged  with  yellow;  in  flavour;  in  being  smooth  or  downy. —  few, 
however,  of  the  Red  gooseberries,  Avhilst  many  of  the  so-ealled 
whites,  are  downy;  or  in  being  so  spinose  that  one  kind  is  called 
Henderson's  Porcupine.  Two  kinds  acquire  Avhen  matuie  a  pow- 
dery bloom  on  their  fruit.  The  fiuit  varies  in  tlie  thickness  and 
veining  of  the  skin,  and,  lastly,  in  shape,  being  sjilieiical.  nhl(<mr. 
oval,  or  obovate.^-^ 

I  cultivated  fifty-four  varieties,  and,  considering  how  greatly 
the  fruit  differs,  it  was  curious  how  closely  similar  the  (lowers  were 

121  Loudon's  '  Encvclop.  of  Gar-  i-^s  The    fullest    .•i«-.-..unt    <>f   the 

deninc:,'     p.     030;     and     Aiph.     De  jrooseberry  is  irneii  l.y  Mr.  Miomp- 

Candolle,      '  Geot?raph.     Bot.,'     p.  son  in  '  Transact.  Hm-t.  Soc.     vol. 

910  i..   211(1   series.    is:{.,.    j..    'Jls.    from 

1"  London's  'Gardener's  Maga-  which  most  of  the  foregoing  facta 

zine,'  vol.  iv.,  1828,  p.  112.  are  taken. 


370  FRUITS.  Chap.  X. 

in  all  these  kinds.  In  only  a  few  I  detected  a  trace  of  difference  in 
the  size  or  colour  of  the  corolla.  The  calyx  differed  in  a  rather 
greater  degree,  for  in  some  kinds  it  was  much  redder  tlian  in 
others;  and  in  one  smooth  white  gooseberry  it  \vas  unusually  red. 
The  calyx  also  differed  in  the  basal  part  being  smooth  or  woollyj 
or  covered  with  glandular  hairs.  It  deserves  notice,  as  being  con- 
trary to  what  might  have  been  expected  from  the  law  of  correla- 
tion, that  a  smooth  red  gooseberry  had  a  remarkably  hairy  calyx. 
The  flowers  of  the  Sportsman  are  furnished  with  very  large  col- 
oured bractege;  and  this  is  the  most  singular  deviation  of^struc- 
ture  which  I  have  observed.  These  same  flowers  also  varied  much 
in  the  number  of  the  petals,  and  occasionally  in  the  number  of 
the  stamens  and  pistils;  so  that  they  were  semi-monstrous  in 
structure,  yet  they  produced  plenty  of  fruit.  Mr.  Thompson  re- 
marks that  in  the  Pastime  gooseberry  "  extra  bracts  are  often  at- 
tached to  the  sides  of  the  fruit."  ^■* 

The  most  interesting  point  in  the  history  of  the  gooseberry  is 
the  steady  increase  in  the  size  of  the  fruit.  Manchester  is  the 
metropolis  of  the  fanciers,  and  prizes  from  five  shillings  to  five  or 
-ten  pounds  are  yearly  given  for  the  heaviest  fruit.  The  'Goose- 
berry Grower's  Register'  is  published  annually;  the  earliest  known 
copy  is  dated  1786,  but  it  is  certain  that  meetings  for  the  adjudica- 
tion of  prizes  were  held  some  years  previous! y.^-^  The  'Register' 
ior  1845  gives  an  account  of  171  Gooseberry  Shows,  held  in  "differ- 
ent places  during  that  year;  and  this  fact  shows  on  how  large  a 
:scale  the  culture  has  been  carried  on.  The  fruit  of  the  wild  goose- 
berry is  said  '-^  to  weigh  about  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  or  5  dwts., 
that  is,  120  grains;  about  the  year  1786  gooseberries  were  exhib- 
ited weighing  10  dwts.,  so  that  the  weight  was  then  doubled;  in 
1817  26  dwts.  17  grs.  was  attained;  there  was  no  advance  till  1825, 
Avhen  31  dwts.  16  grs.  was  reached;  in  1830  "  Teazer  "  weighed  32 
dwts.  13  grs.;  in  1841  "Wonderful"  weighed  32  dwts.  16  grs.:  in 
1844  "  London "  weighed  35  dwts.  12  grs.,  and  in  the  following 
year  36  dwts.  16  grs.;  and  in  1852,  in  Staffordshire,  the  fruit  of 
the  same  variety  reached  the  astonishing  weight  of  37  dwts.  7 
grs.,"^  or  896  grs.;  that  is,  between  seven  or  eight  times  the  weight 
of  the  wild  fruit.  I  find  that  a  small  apple,  6A  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence, has  exactly  this  same  weight.  The  "  London  "  gooseberry 
(which  in  1852  had  altogether  gained  333  prizes)  has,  up  to  the 
present  year  of  1875,  never  reached  a  greater  weight  than  that 
attained  in  1852.  Perhaps  the  fruit  of  the  gooseberry  has  now 
reached  the  greatest  possible  weiglit,  unless  in  the  course  of  time 
;some  new  and  distinct  variety  shall  arise. 

This  gradual,  and  on  the  whole  steady  increase  of  weight  from 

12*  '  Catalogue     of      Fruits      of  i^e  Downing's  '  Fruits  of  Amer- 

Hort.    Society's   Garden,'   8rcl   edi-  ica.  p.  213. 

tion,   1842.  '^7  ^  g^^i.^lener's  Chroniclo,'  1844. 

125  Mr.    Clarkson,    of    Manches-  p.    811,    where    a   table    is    jrivon; 

ter,  on  the  Culture  of  the  Goose-  and  1845,  p.  819.     For  the  extreme 

berry,    in    Loudon's    '  Gardener's  weights    gained,    sc^    '  .Tournal    of 

Magazine,'  vol.  iv.,  1828,  p.  482.  Horticulture,'  July  26,  18G4,  p.  61. 


Chap.  X.  WALNUT.  3^^ 

the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  t.>  the  year  lS.-,2,  is  prolml.Iy  i„ 
large  parWue  to  improved  nu-tlHuls  of  V-ullivation.  Uv^,lZ 
care  is  now  taken;  the  brandies  and  roots  are  t.ni  ,..d\.;m  >ol  h 
are  made  the  soil  is  mulched,  ami  only  a  few  !..■.  ricH  are  le  on 
each  bush;  -  but  the  increase  no  doubt  is  in  ma.n  part  .iue  t«  tho 
continued  selection  of  seedlings  which  have  bc-.-n  tol.nd  to  be  mo 
and  niore  capable  o  yielding  such  extraordinary  fruit.  Ahsu  Iv 
the  Highwayman;'  in  1817  could  not  have  pnuhwcl  frui  ike 
tliat  of  the  Roaring  Lion''  in  1825;  nor  coul.i  tl.e  "  H  a  ,t 
Lion,  though  It  was  groNMi  by  many  persons  in  maiiv  places  ••"n 
the  supreme  triumph  achieved  in  1852  by  the  "  Lon.lon  "  T,^ 
bei-ry.  *  '     ' 

Walnut  {Jifans  refiria).-This  tree  and  the  eomn-.n  m.i  be- 
long to  a  widely  ditTerent  order  from  the  foregoing  fruits,  and  are 
therefore  here  noticed.  The  walnut  grows  wild  on  the  C'aucasuH 
and  in  the  Himalaya,  where  Dr.  Hooker  ^-^  found  the  fruit  ..f  full 
size,  but  "  as  hard  as  a  hickory-nut."  It  has  been  found  f..>.sil  a^ 
M.  de  Saporta  informs  me,  in  the  tertiary  formation,  of  Fran.-,.' 

In  England  the  walnut  presents  considerable  diirerences  in  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  fruit,  in  the  thickness  of  the  liusk,  an.l  in  the 
thmness  of  the  shell;  this  latter  quality  has  given  rise  to  a  va- 
riety called  the  thin-shelled,  which  is  valuable,  but  suffers  from 
the  attacks  of  tit-mice.''"  The  degree  to  which  the  kernel  tills  the 
shell  varies  much.  In  France  there  is  a  variety  calle<l  the  (Jrape 
or  cluster-walnut,  in  which  the  nuts  grow  in'  "  bunches  of  ten, 
fifteen,  or  even  twenty  together."  There  is  another  variety  which' 
bears  on  the  same  tree  differently  shaped  leaves,  like  the*  hetero- 
ph^dlous  hornbeam;  this  tree  is  also  remarkable  from  having  pen- 
dulous branches,  and  bearing  elongated,  large,  thin-shelled  nuts.'" 
M.  Cardan  has  minutely  described ''-  some  singular  physiological 
peculiarities  in  the  June-leafing  variety,  which  produces  its  leaves 
and  floAvers  four  or  five  weeks  later  than  the  comnu)n  varieties; 
and  although  in  August  it  is  apparently  in  exactly  the  same  state 
of  forwardness  as  the  other  kinds,  it  retains  its  leaves  and  fruit 
much  later  in  the  autumn.  These  constitutional  peculiarities  are 
strictly  inherited.  Lastly,  walnut-trees,  which  are  properly  innimi- 
cous,  sometimes  entirely  fail  to  produce  male  flowers.'** 

l^luts  (Conjlus  avellana). — Most  botanists  rank  all  the  varie- 
ties under  the  same  species,  the  common  wild  nut.'^'  The  husk,  or 
involucre,  ditTers  greatly,  being  extremely  short  in  I?arr's  S[)anish, 
and  extremely  long  in  filberts,  in  which  it  is  contracted  so  as  to 

12s  Mr.    Saul,    of    Lancaster,    in  don's     '  Gardener's     Ma?..'     1S20, 

Loiulon's   '  rjfirdener's  Mat;.,'  vol.  vol.  v.  p.  ?0'1. 

ill.,  1S28,  p.  421;  and  vol.  x.,  IS.'U,  "-  Quoted         in         '  (lardeiicr'rt 

p.  42.  Chroii.,'  is-li).  p.  lol. 

"»  '  Himalavan  Journals,'  18.")4,  i^.t  •  (;.„.,|j.,„.r's  Chronicle,'  ISIT, 

vol.  ii.  p.  334.     Moorcroft   ('  Trav-  pp.  n41  and  "..".S. 

els,'  vol.  il.  p.  14r))  describes  four  »^*  The     followiufr    details    an* 

varieties    cultivated    in    Kashmir.  taken     from     the     '  Tatalou'tie    of 

"0' Gardener's   Chronicle,   1850,  Fruits,   ls-42.   in   Can). mi   of   Hon. 

p.  723.  Soe.,'   p.   lO."!:  antl    from    Lomlon  .s 

1=^1  Paper     translated     in     Lou-  *  Eucyclop.  of  Gardening,'  p.  IM.X 

25 


372  CUCURBITACEOUS  PLANTS.  Chap.  X. 

prevent  the  nut  falling  out.  This  kind  of  husk  also  protects  the 
nut  from  birds,  for  titmice  (Puriis)  have  been  observed"^  to  pass 
over  filberts,  and  attack  cobs  and  common  nuts  growing  in  the 
same  orchard.  In  the  purple-filbert  the  husk  is  purple,  and  in  the 
frizzled-filbert  it  is  curiously  laciniated;  in  the  red-filbert  the 
pellicle  of  the  kernel  is  red.  The  shell  is  thick  in  some  varieties, 
but  is  thin  in  Cosford's-nut,  and  in  one  variety  is  of  a  bluish  col- 
our. The  nut  itself  differs  much  in  size  and  shape,  being  ovate 
and  compressed  in  filberts,  nearly  round  and  of  great  size  in  cobs 
and  Spanish  nuts,  oblong  and  longitudinally  striated  in  Cosford's, 
and  obtusely  four-sided  in  the  Downton  Square  nut. 

Cucurhitaccous  plants. — These  plants  have  been  for  a  long  pe- 
riod the  opprobrium  of  botanists;  numerous  varieties  have  been 
ranked  as  species,  and,  what  happens  more  rarely,  forms  Avhich 
now  must  be  considered  as  species  have  been  classed  as  varieties. 
Owing  to  the  admirable  experimental  researches  of  a  distinguished 
botanist,  M.  Naudin,^^''  a  flood  of  light  has  recently  been  thrown  on 
this  group  of  plants.  M.  Xaudin.  during  many  years,  observed  and 
experimented  on  above  1200  living  specimens,  collected  fi-om  all 
quarters  of  the  world.  Six  species  are  now  recognised  in  the 
genus  Cueurbita:  but  three  alone  have  been  cultivated  and  con- 
cern us,  namely.  C.  maxima  and  pcpo,  which  include  all  pumpkins, 
gourds,  squashes,  and  the  vegetable  marrow,  and  C.  inoschata, 
These  three  species  are  not  known  in  a  wild  state ;  but  Asa  Gray  ^" 
gives  good  reason  for  believing  that  some  pumpkins  are  natives  of 
N.  America. 

These  three  species  are  closely  allied,  and  have  the  same  general 
habit,  but  their  innumerable  varieties  can  always  be  distinguished, 
according  to  Xaudin,  by  certain  almost  fixed  characters ;  and  what 
is  still  more  important,  when  crossed  they  yield  no  seed,  or  only 
sterile  seed;  whilst  the  varieties  spontaneously  intercross  with  the 
utmost  freedom.  Xaudin  insists  strongly  (p.  15),  that,  though 
these  three  species  have  varied  greatly  in  many  characters,  yet  it 
has  been  in  so  closely  an  analogous  manner  that  tlie  varieties  can 
be  arranged  in  almost  parallel  series,  as  we  have  seen  with  the 
forms  of  wheat,  with  the  two  main  races  of  the  peach,  and  in  other 
cases.  Though  some  of  the  varieties  are  inconstant  in  character, 
yet  others,  when  grown  separately  under  uniform  conditions  of  life, 
are,  as  Xaudin  repeatedly  (pp.  6,  16,  35)  urges,  "  douees  d'une 
stabilite  presque  comparable  a  celle  des  especes  les  niieux  earacte- 
risees."  One  variety,  I'Orangin  (pp.  43,  63),  has  such  prepotency 
in  transmitting  its  character,  that  when  crossed  with  other  varie- 
ties a  vast  majority  of  the  seedlings  come  true.  X^audin,  referring 
(p.  47)  to  C.  pepo,  says  that  its  races  "  ne  different  des  especes 
veritables  qu'en  ce  qu'elles  peuvent  s'allier  les  unes  aux  autres 
par  voie  d'hybridite,  sans  que  leur  descendance  perde   la  faculty 


135  '  Gardener's     Cliron.,'     18G0, 

13T  '  American 

Journ.     of     Sci- 

p.  956. 

ence.'    2ud   ser., 

vol.    xxiv.,    1857, 

13C  '  Annales  des  Sc.  Nat.  Bot.,' 

p.  442. 

4th  series,  vol.  vi.,  185G,   p.  5. 

Chap.  X.       CUCURBITACEOUS  PLANTS.         375 

de  se  perpetuer."  If  we  were  to  trust  to  external  diirerencoa 
alone,  and  give  up  the  test  of  sterility,  a  multitude  of  .species  would 
have  to  be  formed  out  of  the  varieties  of  these  three  speeie.s  of 
Cucurbita.  Many  natuialists  at  the  present  day  lay  far  too  little 
stress,  in  my  opinion,  on  the  test  of  sterility;  yet  it'is  not  impn.l.- 
able  that  distinct  species  of  plants  after  a  long  course  of  cultivation 
and  variation  may  have  their  mutual  sterility  eliminateil,  u»  we 
have  every  reason  to  believe  has  occurred  witli  doniesticatiMl  ani- 
mals. Nor,  in  the  case  of  plants  under  cultivation,  shoidd  we- 
be  justified  in  assuming  tliat  varieties  never  actpiire  a  slight  de- 
gree of  mutual  sterility,  as  we  shall  more  fully  see  in  a'^futurc 
chapter  when  certain  facts  are  given  on  the  high  authority  of 
Gartner  and  Kolreuter.^"'* 

The  forms  of  C.  pepo  are  classified  by  Naudin  under  seven  sec- 
tions, each  including  subordinate  varieties.  He  considers  this 
plant  as  probably  the  most  variable  in  the  world.  The  fruit  of  one 
variety  (pp.  33,  46)  exceeds  in  value  that  of  another  by  ini>re  than 
two  thousand  fold!  When  the  fruit  is  of  very  large  .size,  the 
number  produced  is  few  (p.  45) ;  w^hen  of  small  size,  many  are 
produced.  No  less  astonishing  (p.  33)  is  the  variation  in  the  *shiii)e 
of  the  fruit,  the  typical  form  apparently  is  egg-like,  but  this  he- 
comes  either  drawn  out  into  a  cylinder,  or  shortened  into  a  tlat 
disc.  We  have  also  an  almost  infinite  diversity  in  the  colour  and 
state  of  surface  of  the  fruit,  in  the  hardness  both  of  the  shell  and  of 
the  tiesh,  and  in  the  taste  of  the  flesh,  which  is  either  extremely 
sweet,  farinaceous,  or  slightly  bitter.  The  seeds  also  differ  in  a 
slight  degree  in  shape,  and  wonderfully  in  size  (p.  34).  namely, 
from  six  or  seven  to  more  than  twentj'-five  millimetres  in  length. 

In  the  A-arieties  which  grow  upright  or  do  not  run  and  clindj, 
the  tendrils,  though  useless  (p.  31),  are  either  present  or  are  repre- 
sented by  various  semi-monstrous  organs,  or  are  quite  absent.  The 
tendrils  are  e^en  absent  in  some  running  varieties  in  whicli  the 
stems  are  much  elongated.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  (p.  31)  in  all 
the  varieties  with  dwarfed  stems,  the  leaves  closely  resemble  each 
other  in  shape. 

Those  naturalists  who  believe  in  the  immutability  of  spe- 
cies often  maintain  that,  even  in  the  most  variable  forms,  the 
characters  which  they  consider  of  specific  value  are  uiichango^ 
able.  To  give  an  example  from  a  conscientious  writer,'" 
who,  relying  on  the  labours  of  M.  Naudin,  and  referring  to 
the  species  of  Cucurbita,  says  "  au  milieu  de  toutes  les  varia- 
tions du  fruit,  les  tiges,  les  feuilles,  les  calices,  les  corollcs.  les 

138 Gartner,  'Bastarderzeujrnni;.*  .s'^r     K.-Hvoutrr.     '/^)\\'"<'    .I"''''"';;--' 

1849.    s.    87.    and    s.    160    with    re-  1704.  s.  ..:i:  tlioiifrli  this  Is  a  snuu- 

spect    to    Maize:    on    Ver1>ascnni,  wliat  (lifferent  c-ase 
ibid.,    ss.    92    and    181:    also    his  i^-' •  De  1  Ksp.-^rcs     par  M.   (..nl- 

'  Kenntniss   der    Befruchtunc:,'    s.  rou,  torn.  li.  p-  04. 
137.     With  respect  to  Nicotiaua, 


3Y4  CUCURBITACEOUS  PLANTS.  Chap.  X. 

etamines  restent  invariables  dans  chacune  d'elles."  Yet  M. 
Naudin,  in  describing  Cucurhita  pepo  (p.  30),  says:  "  Ici, 
•d'ailleurs,  ce  ne  sont  pas  seulement  les  fruits  qui  varient,  c'est 
aussi  le  feuillage  et  tout  le  port  de  la  plante.  ^STeanmoins,  je 
■crois  qu'on  la  distinguera  toujours  facilement  des  deux  autres 
especes,  si  Ton  veut  ne  pas  perdre  de  vue  les  caracteres  dif- 
ferentiels  que  je  m'efforce  de  faire  ressortir.  Ces  caracteres 
.sont  quelquefois  peu  marques:  il  arrive  meme  que  plusieurs 
d'entre  eux  s'effacent  presque  entierement,  mais  il  en  reste 
toujours  quelques-uns  qui  remettent  I'observateur  sur  la 
voie."  jSTow  let  it  be  noted  what  a  difference,  with  regard  to 
the  immutability  of  the  so-called  specific  characters,  this 
paragraph  produces  on  the  mind,  from  that  above  quoted 
from  M.  Godron. 

I  will  add  another  remark:  naturalists  continually  assert 
that  no  important  organ  varies;  but  in  saying  this  they  un- 
consciously argue  in  a  vicious  circle;  for  if  an  organ,  let  it 
be  what  it  may,  is  highly  variable,  it  is  regarded  as  unim- 
portant, and  under  a  systematic  point  of  view  this  is  quite 
•correct.  But  as  long  as  constancy  is  thus  taken  as  the  cri- 
terion of  importance,  it  will  indeed  be  long  before  an  im- 
portant organ  can  be  shown  to  be  inconstant.  The  enlarged 
form  of  the  stigmas,  and  their  sessile  position  on  the  summit 
of  the  ovary,  must  be  considered  as  important  characters,  and 
were  used  by  Gasparini  to  separate  certain  pumpkins  as  a 
distinct  genus;  but  ISTaudin  says  (p.  20),  these  parts  have  no 
constancy,  and  in  the  flowers  of  the  Turban  varieties  of  C. 
maxima  they  sometimes  resume  their  ordinary  structure. 
Again,  in  C.  maxima,  the  carpels  (p.  19)  which  form  the 
turban  project  even  as  much  as  two-thirds  of  their  length 
out  of  the  receptacle,  and  this  latter  part  is  thus  reduced  to  a 
sort  of  platform;  but  this  remarkable  structure  occurs  only 
in  certain  varieties,  and  graduates  into  the  common  form  in 
which  the  carpels  are  ahnost  entirely  enveloped  within  the 
receptacle.  In  C.  moschata  the  ovarium  (p.  50)  varies  great- 
ly in  shape,  being  oval,  nearly  spherical,  or  cylindrical,  more 
or  less  swollen  in  the  upper  part,  or  constricted  round  the 
middle,  and  either  straight  or  curved.  When  the  ovarium  is 
short  and  oval  the  interior  structure  does  not  differ  from  that 
.of  C.  maxima  and  pepo,  but  when  it  is  elongated  the  carpels 


Chap.  X.  CUCURBITACEOUS  PLANTS.  o-r 

occupy  only  the  terminal  and  swollen  portion.  T  may  add 
that  in  one  variety  of  the  cucumber  (Cucumis  satirus)  tlje 
fruit  regularly  contains  five  carpels  instead  of  three.'*"  I 
presume  that  it  will  not  be  disputed  that  we  hen-  have  in- 
stances of  great  variability  in  organs  of  tlie  hi^iicst  physi(.- 
logical  importance,  and  with  most  plants  of  the  lii^jrhest  clussi- 
ficatory  importance. 

Sageret^*^  and  Xaudin  found  that  the  cucumber  {('.  satinis) 
could  not  be  crossed  with  any  other  species  of  the  o(.ni,>;  thcivfuu' 
no  doubt  it  is  specifically  distinct  from  the  melon,  'iliis  will 
appear  to  most  persons  a  superlluous  statement;  \rl  wv  liear  from 
Naudin  "-  that  there  is  a  race  of  melons,  in  wiiicli  tlie  fruit  is 
so  like  that  of  the  cucumber,  "both  externally  and  internally,  tlisit 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  otiuT  \'xit'|>t 
by  the  leaves."  The  varieties  of  the  melon  seem  to  be  endle>s, 
for  Xaudin  after  six  years'  study  had  not  come  to  the  end  of  them: 
he  divides  them  into  ten  sections,  including  numerous  sul)-varie- 
ties  which  all  intercross  with  perfect  ease.**^  Of  the  forms  consi«l- 
ered  by  Naudin  to  be  varieties,  botanists  have  maile  thiity  dislnict 
species!  "and  they  had  not  the  slightest  acquaintance  witli  the 
multitude  of  new  forms  which  liaye  appeared  since  their  time.'* 
Nor  is  the  creation  of  so  many  species  at  all  siu'prising  wlien  we 
consider  how  strictly  their  characters  are  transmitted  by  seed, 
and  how  wonderfully  they  differ  in  appearance:  "  ^Nlira  est  quidem 
foliorum  et  habitus  diversitas,  sed  miilto  magis  fructuum,"  savs 
Naudin.  The  fruit  is  the  valuable  part,  and  this,  in  accordaut-e 
with  the  common  rule,  is  the  most  modified  part.  Some  nudons 
are  only  as  large  as  small  plums,  others  weigh  as  nnich  as  sixty-si.\ 
pounds.  One  variety  has  a  scarlet  fruit!  Another  is  not  moie 
than  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  sometimes  more  than  a  yard  in 
length,  "twisting  about  in  all  directions  like  a  serpent."  It  is 
a  singular  fact  that  in  this  latter  variety  many  parts  of  the  plant, 
namely,  the  stems,  the  footstalks  of  the  female  flowers,  the  middle 
lobe  of  the  leaves,  and  especially  the  oyarium,  as  well  as  tiie  ma- 
ture fruit,  all  show  a  strong  tendency  to  become  elongated.  Sev- 
eral varieties  of  the  melon  are  interesting  from  assuming  the  char- 
acteristic features  of  distinct  species  and  eyen  of  distinct  though 
allied  genera:  thus  the  serpent-melon  has  some  resemblance  to  the 
fruit  of  Trichomnthes  (nujuina :  we  have  seen  that  other  varieties 
closely  resemble  cucumbers;  some  Egyptian  varieties  have  their 
seeds  attached  to  a  portion  of  the  pulp,  and  this  is  characteristic 

"0  Naudin.  in  '  Annal.  rles  So.  L^m.  p.  11.^-.  I  hnvo  oft.-n  con- 
Nat..'  4th  ser.  Bot.  torn.  xi.  1859,  suited  and  tnkon  sonir  f!''/  >;  .f''  '» 
p    28  M-    Naudin  s   Moniolr  on   (  tuMinil* 

'""'Memoire    sur    les    Cucurbi-  In    '  Aunal.    dcs  ^.••-    ^LV,-'    'V'   •''*^ 

tacees.'  1826.  np.  6.  24.  rics.   Pot.  toin.  xi  .  is...».  p.  .•• 

142 '  Flore  des  Sevres,'  Oct.,  ISr.l.  i"  ."^rr      also      bagerel  h        -mc- 

quoted  in  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  moire,'  p.  7. 


:376  TREES.  Chap.  X. 

^f  certain  -wild  forms.  Lastly,  a  variety  of  melon  from  Algiers  is 
remarkable  from  announcing  its  maturity  by  "  a  spontaneous  and 
almost  sudden  dislocation/"  when  deep  cracks  suddenly  appear, 
■and  the  fruit  falls  to  pieces;  and  this  occurs  with  the  wild  C. 
momordica.  Finally,  M.  Naudin  well  remarks  that  this  "  extraor- 
dinary production  of  races  and  varieties  by  a  single  species  and 
their  permanence  when  not  interfered  with  by  crossing,  are  phe- 
nomena well  calculated  to  cause  reilection." 

• 

Useful  and  Ornamental,  Trees. 

Trees  deserve  a  passing  notice  on  account  of  the  numerous 
Tarieties  which  they  present,  differing  in  their  precocity,  in  their 
manner  of  growth,  their  foliage,  and  bark.  Thus  of  the  common 
ash  {Fraxinus  excelsior)  the  catalogue  of  Messrs.  La\\son  of  Edin- 
burgh includes  twenty-one  varieties,  some  of  which  differ  much  in 
their  bark ;  there  is  a  yellow,  a  streaked  reddish-white,  a  purple, 
a  wart-barked  and  a  fungous-barked  varietv."*  Of  hollies  no  less 
than  eighty-four  varieties  are  grown  alongside  each  other  in  Mr. 
Paul's  nursery.^*^  In  the  case  of  trees,  all  the  recorded  varieties, 
as  far  as  I  can  find  out,  have  been  suddenly  produced  by  one 
single  act  of  variation.  The  length  of  time  required  to  raise  many 
generations,  and  the  little  value  set  on  the  fanciful  varieties,  ex- 
plain how  it  is  that  successive  modifications  have  not  been  accu- 
mulated by  selection;  hence,  also,  it  follows  that  we  do  not  here 
meet  with  sub-varieties  subordinate  to  varieties,  and  these  again 
subordinate  to  higher  groups.  On  the  Continent,  however,  where 
the  forests  are  more  carefully  attended  to  than  in  England,  Alph. 
De  Candolle  ""  says  that  there  is  not  a  forester  who  does  not  search 
for  seeds  from  that  A'ariety  which  he  esteems  the  most  valuable. 

Our  useful  trees  have  seldom  been  exposed  to  any  great  cliange 
of  conditions;  they  have  not  been  richly  manured,  and  the  Eng- 
lish kinds  grow  under  their  proper  climate.  Yet  in  examining  ex- 
tensive beds  of  seedlings  in  nurserv-ffardens  considerable  differ- 
ences  may  be  generally  observed  in  them;  and  whilst  touring  in 
England  I  have  been  surprised  at  the  amount  of  difference  in  the 
appearance  of  the  same  species  in  our  hedgerows  and  woods.  But 
as  plants  vary  so  much  in  a  truly  wild  state,  it  would  be  difficult 
for  even  a  skilful  botanist  to  pronounce  whether,  as  I  believe  to 
be  the  case,  hedgerow  trees  vary  more  than  those  growing  in  a 
primeval  forest.  Trees  when  planted  by  man  in  woods  or  hedges 
do  not  grow  where  they  would  naturally  be  able  to  hold  their 
place  against  a  host  of  competitors,  and  are  therefore  exposed  to 
conditions  not  strictlv  natural:  even  this  sliirht  chanu-e  would 
probably  suffice  to  cause  seedlings  raised  from  such  trees  to  be 
variable.  Whether  or  not  our  half-wild  English  trees,  as  a  general 
rule,  are  more  variable  than  trees  growing  in  their  native  forests, 

"^Loudon's       'Arboretum      et  i*' >  (^^i.(jgngi.'g  Chronicle,'  1866, 

T'ruticetum,'      volume      ii.      page       p.  1006. 
1217.  "6  .  Geograph.   Bot.,'  p.   1096. 


Chap.  X.  TREES. 


377 


there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that  they  have  vioUled  a  pn-airr  num- 
ber of  strongly-marked  and  singular  variations  of  .stiu.lure. 

In  manner  of  growth,  we  have  weeping  or  prmlulou.s  varieties 
of  the  willow,  ash,  elm,  oak,  and  yew,  an^l  oilier  trer.s;  aiul  this 
weeping  habit  is  sometimes  inherited,  tliough  m  a  singuhirly  .-a- 
priciotis  manner.  In  the  Lombardy  pophir,  and  in  terrain  lasiig- 
iate  or  pyramidal  varieties  of  thorns,  junipers,  oaks,  &c.,  we  have 
an  opposite  kind  of  growth.  The  liessuui  oak,'*'  wliieh  is  fanioun 
from  its  fastigiate  habit  and  size,  bears  hardly  anv  rest-in hla nee 
in  general  appearance  to  a  common  oak;  "its  aeorns  aire  not 
sure  to  produce  plants  of  the  same  habit;  some,  however,  turn 
out  the  same  as  the  parent-tree."  Another  fastii^iate  oak  is  said 
to  have  been  found  wild  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  tliis  is  a  surj)risin^ 
circumstance;  it  generally  comes  so  true  by  seed,  tluit  De  Can- 
dolle  considered  it  as  specifically  distinct."*  The  fastigiate  .Junip«T 
(J.  succica)  likewise  transmits  its  character  by  seeiL'*'-'  Dr.  Fal- 
coner informs  me  that  in  the  Botanic  Gardens  at  Calcutta  tlie  great 
heat  caused  apple-trees  to  become  fastigiate;  anil  we  thus  see  the 
same  result  following  from  the  effects  of  climate  and  from  some  un- 
known cause. ^^^ 

In  foliage  we  have  variegated  leaves  which  are  often  inherited; 
dark  purple  or  red  leaves,  as  in  the  hazel,  barberry,  and  beecli, 
the  colour  in  these  two  latter  trees  being  sometimes  strongly  and 
sometimes  weakly  inherited;  ^^^  deeply-cut  leaves:  and  h-aves  cov- 
ered with  prickles,  as  in  the  variety  of  the  holly  well  called  frrox, 
which  is  said  to  reproduce  itself  by  seed.'^-  In  fact,  nearly  all 
the  peculiar  varieties  evince  a  tendency,  more  or  less  str»»ngly 
marked,  to  reproduce  themselves  by  seed.'""  Tins  is  to  a  certain 
extent  the  case,  according  to  Bosc,^^*  with  three  varieties  of  the 
elm,  namely,  the  broad-leafed,  lime-leafed,  and  twisted  elm.  in 
which  latteV  the  fibres  of  the  wood  are  twisted.  Even  witii  the 
heterophyllous  hornbeam  {Carpbius  hdtilus),  which  bears  on  each 
twig  leaves  of  two  shapes,  "  several  plants  raised  from  seed  all  re- 
tained the  same  peculiarity."  ''^  I  will  add  only  one  other  remark- 
able case  of  variation  in  foliage,  namely,  the  oecurrem-e  of  lw«) 
sub-varieties  of  the  ash  with  simple  instead  of  pinnated  leaves,  and 
which  generallv  transmit  their  character  by  seed.""  The  oecur- 
rence,  in   trees'  belonging  to  widely  dift'erent  orders,  of  weeping 

i*T  '  Gardener's     Chron.,'     1S42.  i-^^  Loudon's      'Arbnn'tnm      .-t 

p.  36.  Fniticctum.    ^I^'-   "•  '»•  •■''^- .  ,«,.- 

^"London's       'Arboretum       et  1-.3  Verlot,  '  Des  \  arietC's.   1M»... 

Fmticetimi,'  vol.  iii.  p.  17.31.  p.  92.  ...,„,„      ..♦ 

»»  Ibid.,  vol.  iv.  p.  2489.  ''*  Loudon's       '  A'-»'<>nVi"»      '"^ 

is^Oodron  (' De  I'Espece.'  torn.  Fnitioetnin.    vol.  ii  .  P-    ';^'V,^,, 

ii.   p.  91)   describes  four  varieties  i^'j^Gardeuer  s  (  lir<.nl<-li'.    IMI. 

of  Robinia  remarkable  from  their  p.  ^87  i.i-...\,.  .•  t.mi 

manner  of  growth.  ^•''«  Oodron    '  Dj-  1  .';'^i;f.  •;•..," '• 

151  .  Journal   of  a   Horticultural  ii.  p.  89.       »  ^7''^7^,.,^.  ''      . r V     .« 

Tour,   bv   Caledonian   Hort.    Soe..'  :\Iair..'    vol.    xi  ..     '^: '':    Vio.;..',- i,..il 

182.S,   p.   107.      Alph.    Dp  Candolle,  varicfrated  bush.v  ash  Is    les.  t       M 

'  G^OffVaph.   Bot..  p.  108.3.     Verlot,        and     figured      .^'% 'V\      Ir.^i 

'  Sur  la  rroduction  des  Varietes,'        leaves;   it  ori^-uiated   In   Inlana. 

1865;  p.  55  for  the  Barberry. 


378  TREES.  Chap.  X. 

and  fastigiate  varieties,  and  of  trees  bearing  deeply  cut,  variegated, 
and  purple  leaves,  shows  that  these  deviations  of  structure  must 
result  from  some  very  general  physiological  laws. 

Differences  in  general  appearance  and  foliage,  not  more  strong- 
ly marked  than  those  above  indicated,  have  led  good  observers  to 
rank  as  distinct  species  certain  forms  which  are  now  known  to  be 
mere  varieties.  Thus,  a  plane-tree  long  cultivated  in  England  was 
considered  by  almost  every  one  as  a  North  American  species;  but 
it  is  now  ascertained  by  old  records,  as  I  am  informed  by  Dr. 
Hooker,  to  be  a  variety.  So,  again,  the  Thuja  })en(hda  or  fiU- 
formis  was  ranked  by  such  good  observers  as  Lambert,  Wallich, 
and  others,  as  a  true  species;  but  it  is  now  known  that  the  origi- 
nal plants,  five  in  number,  suddenly  appeared  in  a  bed  of  seed- 
lings raised  at  Mr.  Loddige's  nursery,  from  T.  oriental  is;  and  Dr. 
Hooker  has  adduced  excellent  evidence  that  at  Turin  seeds  of 
T.  apendula  have  reproduced  the  parent  form,  T.  orientalist'"' 

Everv  one  must  have  noticed  how  certain  individual  trees  resu- 
larly  put  forth  and  shed  their  leaves  earlier  or  later  than  others 
of  the  same  species.  There  is  a  famous  horse-chestnut  in  the 
Tuileries  which  is  named  from  leafing  so  much  earlier  than  the 
others.  There  is  also  an  oak  near  Edinburgh  which  retains  its 
leaves  to  a  very  late  period.  These  differences  have  been  attrib- 
uted by  some  authors  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  trees 
grow;  but  Archbishop  Whately  grafted  an  early  thorn  on  a  late 
one,  and  vice  versa,  and  both  grafts  kept  to  their  proper  periods, 
Avhich  differed  by  about  a  fortnight,  as  if  they  still  grew  on  their 
own  stocks.^"*  There  is  a  Cornish  variety  of  the  elm  which  is  al- 
most an  evergreen,  and  is  so  tender  that  the  shoots  are  often  killed 
by  the  frost;  and  the  varieties  of  the  Turkish  oak  (Q.  cerris)  may 
be  arranged  as  deciduous,  sub-evergreen,  and  evergreen.'^" 

Scotch  Fir  (Finns  sijlvestiis) .—I  allude  to  this  tree  as  it  bears 
on  the  question  of  the  greater  variability  of  our  hedgerow  trees 
compared  with  those  under  strictly  natural  conditions.  A  well- 
informed  writer  "**  states  that  the  Scotch  fir  presents  few  varieties 
in  its  native  Scotch  forests ;  but  that  it  "  varies  much  in  figure 
and  foliage,  and  in  the  size,  shape,  and  colour  of  its  cones,  when 
several  generations  have  been  produced  away  from  its  native  lo- 
cality." There  is  little  doubt  that  the  highland  and  lowland  va- 
rieties differ  in  the  value  of  their  timber,  and  that  they  can  be 
propagated  truly  by  seed;  thus  justifying  Loudon's  remark,  that 
"  a  variety  is  often  of  as  much  importance  as  a  species,  and  some- 
times far  more  so."'  ^"  I  may  mention  one  rather  important  point 
in  which  this  tree  occasionally  varies;  in  the  classification  of  the 
Coniferse,  sections  are  founded  on  whether  two,  three,  or  five 
leaves  are  included  in  the  same  sheath ;  the  Scotch  fir  has  properly 

1"  '  Gardener's     Chron.,'     1803,  Fruticetum:'  for  Elm.  sec  vol.  iii. 

p.  575.  p.   1.S76:  for  Oak.   p.   184(5. 

IS'*  Quoted     from     Royal     Irish  i'^°' Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1849, 

Academy  in   '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  p.   822. 
1841,  p.  767.  i«i  '  Arboretum  et  Fruticetum,* 

^^^  Loudon's       '  Arboretum      et  vol.  iv.  p.  21.50. 


d 


Chap.  X.  FLOWERS. 


379 


r»s(>rN('(i 


only  two  leaves  thus  enclosed,  but  spooimons  l.ave  Won  o!,..-.,,-.. 
with  groups  of  three  leaves  in  a  shoatli.'"=  JJcsides  tlics<.  ,lif- 
ferences  m  the  senu-eultivated  Scotcli  iir,  tlicre  nrc  in  M-vt-ral 
parts  of  Europe  natural  or  geographical  races,  wl.ich  have  Imm-h 
ranked  by  some  authors  as  distinct  species.'"''  l.oiid.,],  '••  ....nsid.TH 
P.  pvmiho,  with  its  several  sub-varieties,  as  iniKjInis,  mi  mi  &<• 
which  differ  much  wiien  planted  in  different  soils,  iin.i  onlv 'cmi- 
"tolerably  true  from  seed,"  as  alpine  varieties  of  tlie  Scotcli  Iir- 
if  this  were  proved  to  be  the  case  it  would  be  an  interest  in;;  fart 
as  showing  that  dwarfing  from  long  exposure  to  a  severe  clinuiti-  is 
to  a  certain  extent  inherited. 

The  Hawthorn  {CniUnjus  o.i-i/aciinfhd)  has  varied  nuich.  JU- 
sides  endless  slighter  variations  in  the  form  of  the  leaves,  and  in 
the  size,  hardness,  fleshiness,  and  shape  of  the  berries,  London  *'■» 
enumerates  twenty-nine  well-marked  varieties.  IJesidcs  those  cnl- 
tivated  for  their  pretty  flowers,  there  are  others  with  goldrn-vd- 
low,  black,  and  whitish  berries;  others  with  woolly  bcnics,  and 
others  with  recurved  thorns.  Loudon  truly  remarks  that  the  chief 
reason  why  the  hawthorn  has  yielded  more  varieties  than  most 
other  trees,  is  that  nurserymen  select  any  remarkable  variety  ont 
of  the  immense  beds  of  seedlings  which  aie  aniuially  raised  lor 
making  hedges.  The  flowers  of  the  hawthorn  usually  include  from 
one  to  three  pistils;  but  in  two  varieties,  named  itioiiotjiinn  and 
sihirica,  there  is  only  a  single  pistil ;  and  d'Asso  states  that  the 
common  thorn  in  Spain  is  constantly  in  this  state.""*  There  is 
also  a  variety  which  is  apetalous,  or  has  its  petals  reduced  to  mere 
rudiments.  The  famous  Glastonbury  thorn  flowers  and  leafs  to- 
wards the  end  of  December,  at  which  time  it  bears  berries  proiluced 
from  an  earlier  crop  of  flowers.^"  It  is  worth  notice  that  several 
varieties  of  the  hawthorn,  as  well  as  of  the  lime  and  jnnij)er,  are 
very  distinct  in  their  foliage  and  habit  whilst  young,  but  in  the 
course  of  thirtv  or  fortv  years  become  extremelv  like  each  other;  '** 
thus  reminding  us  of  the  well-known  fact  that  the  deodar,  the 
cedar  of  Lebanon,  and  that  of  the  Atlas  are  distinguished  with  the 
greatest  ease  whilst  young,  but  with  difficulty  when  old. 

Flowers. 

I  SHALL  not  for  several  reasons  treat  the  variability  of  ])lant.s 
which  are  cultivated  for  their  flowers  alone  at  any  great  length. 
Many  of  our  favourite  kinds  in  their  present  state  are  the  descend- 
ants of  two  or  more  species  crossed  and  commingled  together,  and 

"-  '  Gardener's     Chron.,'     1852.  *«=>  '  Arhoretnni   ef    FruHeef  nm.* 

p.  fi9,3.  vol.    ii.    !>.    >^.'^":     L<><i<i<>ii  s       «.ar- 

*  i«3  .<irpr  '  Beitriig-e  zur  Kenntniss  (loner's    Ma;:..'    vol.    vi-.    I''"''-    P- 

EnropJiisclier  Pinus-nrten  von  Dr.  714.                               ...                ♦ 

Christ:    Flora.    18(14.'      He    shows  >'■"  Loudon  s      •  .Xrhoiefnni       et 

that   in   the   Oher-Enijadin  P.   si/l-  Fruticetuni.'    vol._  li.    p.   •^•4.           , 

vfstris  and  monlann  are  connected  '"'  London  s  •(..•inlener  s  .Map.. 

by  intermediate  links.  vol.  ix..  ISG.'i.  p.  ^-^. 

i«*  '  Arboretum  et   Frnticetum,'  ^'^^  Ibid.,  vol.  xi.,  IS^J,  P-  ••^••»- 
vol.  iv.  pp.  2159  and  2189. 


;380  FLOWERS.  Chap.  X. 

this  circumstance  alone  would  render  it  difficult  to  detect  the  dif- 
ference due  to  variation.  For  instance,  our  Koses,  Petunias,  Cal- 
ceolarias, Fuchsias,  Verbenas,  Gladioli,  Pelargoniums,  &c.,  certainly 
have  had  a  multiple  origin.  A  botanist  well  acquainted  with 
the  parent-forms  would  probably  detect  some  curious  structural 
differences  in  their  crossed  and  cultivated  descendant;  and  he 
would  certainly  observe  many  new  and  remarkable  constitutional 
peculiarities.  I  will  give  a  few  instances,  all  relating  to  the  Pe- 
largonium, and  taken  chiefly  from  Mr.  Beck,^"'-*  a  famous  cultivator 
of  this  plant:  some  varieties  require  more  water  than  others; 
5ome  are  "  very  impatient  of  the  knife  if  too  greedily  used  in  mak- 
ing cuttings;  "  some,  when  potted,  scarcely  ""show  a  root  at  the 
outside  of  the  ball  of  the  earth;  "  one  A'ariety  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  confinement  in  the  pot  to  make  it  throw  up  a  flower- 
stem;  some  varieties  bloom  well  at  the  commencement  ol  the  sea- 
son, others  at  the  close;  one  variety  is  known,"''  which  will  stand 
"  even  pine-apple  top  and  bottom  heat,  without  looking  any  more 
drawn  than  if  it  had  stood  in  a  common  greenhouse;  and  Blanche 
Fleur  seems  as  if  made  on  purjjose  for  growing  in  winter,  like 
many  bulbs,  and  to  rest  all  summer."  These  odd  constitutional 
peculiarities  would  enable  a  plant  in  a  state  of  nature  to  become 
adapted  to  widely  different  circumstances  and  climates. 

Flowers  possess  little  interest  under  our  present  point  of  view, 
l)ecause  they  haA'e  been  almost  exclusively  attended  to  and  selected 
for  their  beautiful  colour,  size,  perfect  outline,  and  manner  of 
growth.  In  these  particulars  hardly  one  long-cultivated  flower  can 
be  named  which  has  not  varied  greatly.  What  does  a  florist  care 
for  the  shape  and  structure  of  the  organs  of  fructification,  unless, 
indeed,  they  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  flower?  When  this  is  the 
case,  flowers  become  modified  in  important  points;  stamens  and 
pistils  may  be  converted  into  petals,  and  additional  petals  may  be 
developed,*^  as  in  all  double  flowers.  The  process  of  gradual  selec- 
tion by  ^^'hich  flowers  have  been  rendered  more  and  more  double, 
each  step  in  the  process  of  conversion  being  inherited,  has  been  re- 
corded in  several  instances.  In  the  so-called  double  floAvers  of  the 
Composite  the  corollas  of  the*  central  florets  are  greatly  modified, 
and  the  modifications  are  likewise  inherited.  In  the  columbine 
(Aquilcgia  niUjaris)  some  of  the  stamens  are  converted  into  petals 
having  the  shape  of  nectaries,  one  neatly  fitting  into  the  other; 
iDut  in  one  variety  they  are  converted  into  simple  petals."^  In  tlie 
"  hose  in  hose  "  primulte.  the  calyx  becomes  brightly  coloured  and 
■enlarged  so  as  to  resemble  a  corolla :  and  Mr.  W.  Wooler  informs 
me  that  this  peculiarity  is  transmitted:  for  he  crossed  a  common 
polyanthus  with  one  having  a  coloured  calyx,''-  and  some  of  the 
seedlings  inherited  the  coloured  calyx  during  at  least  six  genera- 
tes '  Gardener's  Chron.,'  1845,  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,"  for  1845, 
p.    62.^^.  pajre  226. 

I'o  Mr.  D.   Beaton,  in  tlie  '  Cot-  "^  Moqnin-Tanrlon.      '  Elements 

tage    Gardener,'    1860,    pase    377.        de  Teratologie,'  1841.  p.  213. 
See    also     Mr.     Beck,     upon     the  i"  See  also  '  Cottage  Gardener, 

iabits    of    Queen    Mab      in    the       1860,  p.  133. 


Chap.  X.  FLOWERS.  3^12 

tions.  In  the  "hen-and-chicken"  daisy  the  main  (lo\xor  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  brood  of  small  flowers  developed  from  buds  in  the 
axils  of  the  scales  of  the  involucre.  A  wonderful  i)opj)v  ha.s  hv.n 
described,  in  which  the  stamens  are  convfilcd  into  ju^tils;  an«l  w> 
strictly  was  this  peculiarity  inherited  that,  out  of  l.-)4  si.nllin;,'^, 
one  alone  reverted  to  the  ordinary  and  common  lv|)c.'''  Of  ilic 
cock's-comb  (Celosia  cristata),  which  is  an  annual/there  arc  k<'v- 
eral  races  in  which  the  flower-stem  is  wonderfully  "  fasfiat»'<l  "  or 
compressed;  and  one  has  been  exhibited  "^  actually  ei^hti-en  indies 
in  breadth.  Peloric  races  of  (Jlodinia  sixriosu  and  Antiniti' 
num  majus  can  be  propagated  by  seed,  and  they  dilTcr  in  a  won- 
derful manner  from  the  typical  form  both  in  structure  and  ap- 
pearance. 

A  much  more  remarkable  modification  has  been  recorded  by 
Sir  William  and  Dr.  Hooker"^  in  Begonia  fr'Kj'uhi.  This  plant 
properl}'  produces  male  and  female  flowers  on  the  same  fa-icicles; 
and  in  the  female  flowers  the  perianth  is  superior;  but  a  plant  at 
Kew  produced,  besides  the  ordinary  flowers,  others  which  jrradu- 
ated  towards  a  perfect  hermaphrodite  structure;  and  in  the>>e 
flowers  the  perianth  was  inferior.  To  show  the  importance  of  this 
modification  under  a  classificatory  point  of  view,  1  nuiy  (juole 
what  Professor  Harvey  says,  namely,  that  had  it  "  occurred  in  a 
state  of  nature,  and  had  a  botanist  collected  a  ])lant  with  such 
flowers,  he  would  not  only  have  placed  it  in  a  distinct  genus  from 
Begonia,  but  would  probably  have  considered  it  as  the  type  of  a 
new  natural  order."  This  modification  cannot  in  one  sense  be 
considered  as  a  monstrosity,  for  analogous  structures  naturally 
occur  in  other  orders,  as  with  Saxifrage  and  Aristolochiacea'. 
The  interest  of  the  case  is  largely  added  to  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Crocker's 
observation  that  seedlings  from  the  normal  flowers  ]u-oduce(l  plants 
which  bore,  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  the  parent-plant, 
hermaphrodite  flowers  having  inferior  perianths.  The  hermaphro- 
dite flowers  fertilised  with  their  own  pollen  were  sterile. 

If  florists  had  attended  to,  selected,  and  propagated  by  see.l 
other  modifications  of  structure  besides  those  which  are  beautiful, 
a  host  of  curious  varieties  would  certainly  have  been  raised:  and 
they  would  probably  have  transmitted  their  characters  so  truly 
that  the  cultivator  would  have  felt  aggrieved,  as  in  the  cas(>  of 
culinarv  vegetables,  if  his  whole  bed  had  not  presented  a  uniform 
appearance.  Florists  have  attended  in  some  instances  to  the  leaves 
of  their  plant,  and  have  thus  produced  the  most  elegant  and  sym- 
metrical patterns  of  white,  red,  and  green,  which,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  pelargonium,  are  sometimes  strictly  inhente.l.'"^     Any  one 

-3Qnoted    by    Alph.     de    Can-        Harvey,    l"   :.^'\^;V*''7'n..-kIr"in 
dolle.^'Bibl.    Univ.,'    November,       }^,^Jt',iil^;,,r'\^{:     J!' 

5160.  fifr.  4:  Dr.  Hooker,  in  'Oar-        riiron..    1^*^  \i'  P-,.,7i;;;    „'        '  |  i..„ 
dener's  Chron.,'  1860,  p.  190;  Prof.        itunce   of    the    ^^hite    ami    ^-I'l.  n 


382  FLOWERS.  Chap.  X. 

who  will  habitually  examine  highly-cultivated  flowers  in  gardens 
and  greenhouses  will  observe  numerous  deviations  in  structure; 
but  most  of  these  must  be  ranked  as  mere  monstrosities,  and  are 
only  so  far  interesting  as  showing  how  plastic  the  organisation 
becomes  under  high  cultivation.  From  this  point  of  view  such 
works  as  Professor  Moquin-Tandon's  '  Teratologie  '  are  highly  in- 
Btructive. 

Roses. — These  flowers  offer  an  instance  of  a  number  of  forms 
generally  ranked  as  species,  namely,  R.  centifoUa,  (jalUca,  alba, 
damascena,  spuiosissima,  hractcata,  indica,  scmpcrfiorens,  mos- 
chata,  &c.,  which  have  largely  varied  and  been  intercrossed.  The 
genus  rosa  is  a  notoriously  difficult  one,  and,  though  some  of  the 
forms  are  admitted  by  all  botanists  to  be  distinct  species,  others 
are  doubtful ;  thus,  with  respect  to  the  British  forms,  Babington 
makes  seventeen,  and  Bentham  only  five  species.  The  hybrids 
from  some  of  the  most  distinct  forms — for  instance,  from  A*,  indica, 
fertilised  by  the  pollen  of  R.  cent  if  alia — produce  an  abundance  of 
seed;  I  state  this  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Rivers,"'  from  whose 
work  I  have  drawn  most  of  the  following  statements.  As  almost 
all  the  aboriginal  forms  brought  from  different  countries  have 
been  crossed  and  recrossed,  it  is  no  wonder  that  Targioni-Tozzetti, 
in  speaking  of  the  common  roses  of  the  Italian  gardens,  remarks 
that  "  the  native  country  and  precise  form  of  the  wild  type  of 
most  of  them  are  involved  in  much  uncertainty."  "®  Nevertheless, 
Mr.  Rivers  in  referring  to  R.  indica  (p.  68)  says  that  the  descend- 
ants of  each  group  may  generally  be  recognised  by  a  close  ob- 
server. The  same  author  often  speaks  of  roses  as  having  been  a 
little  hybridised;  but  it  is  evident  that  in  very  many  cases  the 
differences  due  to  variation  and  to  hybridisation  can  now  only  be 
conjecturally  distinguished. 

The  species  have  varied  both  by  seed  and  by  bud ;  such  modi- 
fied buds  being  often  called  by  gardeners  sports.  In  the  following 
chapter  I  shall  fully  discuss  this  latter  subject,  and  shall  show  that 
bud- variations  pan  be  propagated  not  only  by  grafting  and  bud- 
ding, but  often  by  seed.  Whenever  a  new  rose  appears  with  any 
peculiar  character,  however  produced,  if  it  yields  seed,  Mr.  Rivers 
(p.  4)  fully  expects  it  to  become  the  parent-type  of  a  new  family. 
The  tendencv  to  varv  is  so  strong  in  some  kinds,  as  in  the  Village 
Maid  (Rivers,  p.  16),  that  when  grown  in  different  soils  it  varies 
so  much  in  colour  that  it  has  been  thought  to  form  several  dis- 
tinct kinds.  Although  the  number  of  kinds  is  very  great:  thus 
M.  Desportes,  in  his  Catalogue  for  1829,  enumerates  2562  as  culti- 
vated in  France;  but  no  doubt  a  large  proportion  of  these  are 
merely  nominal. 

It  would  be  useless  to  specify  the  many  points  of  difference 
between  the  various  kinds,  but  some  constitutional   peculiarities 


•elargoniiim  largely  de-  ^"^  '  Rose  Amateur's  Guide,'  T. 

the   nature  of  the  soil.  Rivers,  1837,  p.  21. 

Baton,    in    '  Journal    of  ^'^  '  .Tournal    Hort.     Soe.,'    vol. 

>       1  0<3-|  ^         aA  i-^  10^:^         -rv         ICO 


zones  in  Pelargonium  largely  de- 
pends on  the  n:  '  —  -  " 

See    D.     Beaton, -_  

Horticulture,'  1861,  p.  64.  ix.,  1855,  p.  182. 


Chap.  X.  FLOWERS.  3^3 


not 


may  be  mentioned  Several  French  ro.ses  (lJi^(.rs.  u.  12,  win  „ol 
succeed  m  England;  and  an  excellent  ho. tirultunsl  -  rcM.m.ks 
that  Even  m  the  same  garden  you  will  lind  that  a  rose  that  v.U 
do  nothing  under  a  south  wall  will  <1„  well  under  a  north  nnl 
That  is  the  case  with  Paul  Joseph  here,  it  gn.ws  sir"  ^  and 
booms  beau  itully  cose  to  a  north  wall.  For  thrcv  yv■.ns\v^V, 
plants  have  done  nothing  under  a  south  wall."  Ma,u  ro.seH  cun  \yc 
forced  many  are  totally  unfit  for  forcing,  among  Vhi.-l,  i.  (;.„• 
eral  Jacqueminot. ;  -  From  the  effects  ol  crossing  and  variati<m 
Mr.  Ixivers  enthusiastically  anticipates  (p.  87)  that  the  ,lav  will 
come  when  all  our  roses,  even  moss-roses,  will  have  eve'rgreen 
foliage  bnlliant  and  fragrant  flowers,  and  the  habit  (,f  blo,M„i„., 
from  June  till  November.  "  A  distant  view  this  sccnis,  but  imt 
severance  m  gardening  will  yet  achieve  wonders,"  as  assuredly  it 
has  already  achieved  wonders. 

It  may  be  worth  while  briefiy  to  give  the  well-known  histf)rv 
of  one  class  of  roses.  In  1793  some  wild  Scotch  roses  (//  sinnosis- 
sima)  were  transplanted  into  a  garden;  >«'  and  one  of  these  bore 
flowers  slightly  tinged  with  red,  from  which  a  plant  was  raised 
with  semi-monstrous  flowers,  also  tinged  with  red:  seedlings  from 
this  flower  were  semi-double,  and  by  continued  selection,  in  about 
nine  or  ten  years,  eight  sub-varieties  were  raised.  In  the  course 
of  less  than  twenty  years  these  double  Scotch  roses  had  so  nuieh 
increased  in  number  and  kind,  that  twenty-six  well-marked  varie- 
ties, classed  in  eight  sections,  were  described  by  Mr.  Sabine.  In 
1841  ^*-  it  is  said  that  three  hundred  varieties  could  be  procured 
in  the  nursery-gardens  near  Glasgow^;  and  these  are  described  as 
blush,  crimson,  purple,  red,  marbled,  two-coloured,  white,  and  yel- 
low, and  as  difTering  much  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  (lower.  * 

Pansy  or  Heartsease  {Yioki  tricolor,  &c.). — The  history  of  this 
flower  seems  to  be  pretty  well  known;  it  was  grown  in  Evelyn's 
garden  in  1687:  but  the  varieties  were  not  attended  to  till  IS1()_ 
1812,  when  Lady  Monke,  together  with  ]\Ir.  Lee,  tlie  well-known 
nurseryman,  energetically  commenced  their  culture;  and  in  the 
course  of  a  few^  years  twenty  varieties  could  be  purehased.'"'  At 
about  the  same  period,  namely  in  1813  or  1814,  Lord  Gambier  col- 
lected some  wild  plants,  and  his  gardener,  Mr.  Thomson,  culti- 
vated them,  together  with  some  common  garden  varieties,  and  soon 
effected  a  great  improvement.  The  first  great  change  was  the  con- 
version of  the  dark  lines  in  the  centre  of  the  flower  into  a  dark 
eye  or  centre,  which  at  that  period  had  never  been  seen,  but  is  now 
considered  one  of  the  chief  requisites  of  a  first-rnte  flower.  In  ls:{.-> 
a  book  entirely  devoted  to  this  flower  was  published,  and  four  hun- 
dred named  varieties  were  on  sale.     From  these  circumstances  this 

i'9The   Rev.    W.    F.    Radclvffe,  "^  .  An    Eneyclop.    ..f    I'l;»»ts.* 

in      'Journal      of      Horticulture,'  by  J.  C.  London,  is.  1.  p.  ;M.?. 
March  14    1S6.5    p    "^07  isa  London's  '  (.arden.T  s  Mnir.'i- 

i«o' Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1861,  zine.'   vol.    xi..    is.y..    p.    4'J7:   :ils.. 

p.  46  'Journal    of    Horticulture,     .\prll 

181  Mr.     Sabine,     in    '  Transact.  14,  1803,  p.  275. 
Hort.  See.,'  vol.  iv.  p.  285. 


38i  FLOWERS.  Chap.  X. 

plant  seemed  to  me  worth  studying,  more  especially  from  the 
great  contrast  between  the  small,  dull,  elongated,  irregular  Uowers 
of  the  wild  pansy,  and  the  beautiful,  Hat,  symmetrical,  circular, 
velvet-like  flowers,  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter,  magnifi- 
cently and  variously  coloured,  which  are  exhibited  at  our  shows. 
But  when  I  came  to  enquire  more  closely,  I  found  that,  though  the 
varieties  were  so  modern,  yet  that  much  confusion  and  doubt  pre- 
vailed about  their  parentage.  Florists  believe  that  the  varieties  ^^^ 
are  descended  from  several  wild  stocks,  namely,  T.  tricolor,  Intea, 
grandiffora,  arnana,  and  altaica,  more  or  less  intercrossed.  And 
when  I  looked  to  botanical  works  to  ascertain  whether  these  forms 
ought  to  be  ranked  as  species,  I  found  equal  doubt  and  confusion. 
Viola  altaica  seems  to  be  a  distinct  form,  but  what  part  it  has 
played  in  the  origin  of  our  varieties  I  know  not;  it  is  said  to  have 
been  crossed  with  T'.  lutea.  Viola  amwna  ^*^  is  now  looked  at  by 
all  botanists  as  a  natural  variety  of  V.  grandiflora;  and  this  and 
V.  svdctica  have  been  pro^'ed  to  be  identical  with  V.  lutea.  The 
latter  and  V.  tricolor  (including  its  admitted  variety  V.  arvcnsis) 
are  ranked  as  distinct  species  by  Babington,  and  likewise  by  M. 
Gay,^*'^  who  has  paid  particular  attention  to  the  genus;  but  the 
specific  distinction  between  V.  lutea  and  tricolor  is  chiefly  ground- 
ed on  the  one  being  strictly  and  the  other  not  strictly  perennial,  as 
well  as  on  some  other  slight  and  unimportant  dift'erences  in  the  form 
of  the  stem  and  stipules.  Bentham  unites  these  two  forms;  and  a 
high  authoiity  on  such  matters,  Mr.  H.  C.  Watson,^*'  says  that 
"  while  r.  tricolor  passes  into  V.  arvcnsis  on  the  one  side,  it  approxi- 
mates so  much  towards  V.  lutea  and  V.  Curtisii  on  the  other  side, 
that  a  distinction  becomes  scarcely  more  easy  between  them." 

Hence,  after  having  carefully  compared  numerous  varieties,  I 
gave  up  the  attempt  as  too  difficult  for  any  one  except  a  professed 
botanist.  IMost  of  the  vai'ieties  present  such  inconstant  characters, 
that  when  grown  in  poor  soil,  or  when  flowering  out  of  their 
proper  season,  they  produced  diflferently  coloured  and  much  smaller 
flowers.  Cultivators  speak  of  this  or  that  kind  as  being  remark- 
ably constant  or  true;  but  by  this  they  do  not  mean,  as  in  other 
cases,  that  the  kind  transmits  its  character  by  seed,  but  that  the 
individual  plant  does  not  change  much  under  culture.  The  ])rin- 
ciple  of  inheritance,  however,  does  hold  good  to  a  certain  extent 
even  with  the  fleeting  varieties  of  the  Heartsease,  for  to  gain  good 
sorts  it  is  indispensable  to  sow  the  seed  of  good  sorts.  Neverthe- 
less, in  almost  every  large  seed-bed  a  few  almost  wild  seedlings 
reappear  through  reversion.  On  comparing  the  choicest  varie- 
ties with  the  nearest  allied  wild  forms,  besides  the  difference  in  the 

^*^  Loudon's  '  Gardener's  Maga-  Sciences,'    in    the    Companion    to 

zine.'  vol.  viii.   p.  575;  vol.  ix.   p.  the   '  Bot.   Mag.,'   vol.  !.,   1835,   p. 

689.  159. 

i«5  Sir    .J.     E.     Smith    '  Enslisli  i"  '  Cvbele   Britannica,'    vol.    i. 

Flora,'  vol.  i.  p.  ,S06.     H.  C.  Wat-  p.   IT.S.      See  also   Dr.    Herbert   on 

son.    '  Cyl^ele   Britannica,'   vol.    i.,  the    changes    of    colour    in    trans- 

1847,   p.  181.  planted    .specimens,     and     on    the 

is*^  Quoted   from    '  Annales    des  natural   variations   of   V.    grandi- 


Chap.  X.  FLOWERS.  3^5^ 

size  outline  and  colour  of  the  floxvrr.s,  the  loaves  sometiines  .lifT.-r 
in  shape,  as  does  the  calyx  occasionally  in  the  h-n^^th  aind  h.va.lih 
of  the  sepals.  Ihe  dillerences  in  tiio  form  ...  thr  ncclarv  i.u.re 
especuilly  deserve  notice;  because  charact.-rs  dciivr,!  fn/iu  ihi* 
organ  have  been  much  used  in  the  di.s,;ri,ninati.>n  of  ino.st  of  il.e 
species  of  \  lola.  In  a  large  number  of  flowers  cojii|>an'd  in  lS4> 
I  found  that  in  the  greater  number  the  noclarv  was  Htnii.'ht-  in 
others  the  extremity  was  a  little  turneil  upwards,  (,r  d..wnwa'r.lH 
or  inwards,  so  as  to  be  completely  hooked;  in  nlhi-rs,  uisu-ad  «>/ 
being  hooked,  it  was  first  turned  rectangularlv  downwardsi  und 
then  backwards  and  upwards;  in  others,  the  extremity  wa«  con- 
siderably enlarged;  and  lastly,  in  some  the  basal  part  was  de- 
pressed, becoming,  as  usual,  laterally  compressed  towards  the  ex- 
tremity. In  a  large  number  of  flowers,  on  the  other  hand,  exam- 
ined by  me  in  185G  fioii'  a  nursery-gaiden  in  a  diirerenl  part  of 
England  the  nectary  hardly  varied  at  all.  Now  M.  (Jav  says  that 
in  certain  districts,  especially  in  Auvergne,  the  nectary *of  tjie  \\'\Ul 
r.  (jrnndiflora  varies  in  the  manner  just  descrilied.  Must  we  con- 
clude from  this  that  the  cultivated  varieties  first  mentioned  were 
all  descended  from  V.  (jramUfiura,  and  that  the  second  loi,  thou^'h 
having  the  same  general  appearance,  were  descended  from  V. 
tricolor,  of  which  the  nectary,  according  to  M.  Gay,  is  subject  to 
little  variation?  Or  is  it  not  more  probable  that  both  these  wild 
forms  would  be  found  under  other  conditions  to  vary  in  tlie  same 
manner  and  degree,  thus  showing  that  they  ought  not  to  be  ranked 
as  specifically  distinct? 

The  DuliUa  has  been  referred  to  by  almost  every  autiior  who 
has  written  on  the  variation  of  plants,  because  it  is  believed  that 
all  the  varieties  are  descended  from  a  single  species,  and  because 
all  have  arisen  since  1802  in  France,  and  since  1S()4  in  England.'** 
Mr.  Sabine  remarks  that  "it  seems  as  if  some  jH'riod  of  cultivation 
had  been  required  before  the  fixed  qualities  of  the  native  plant 
gave  way  and  began  to  sport  into  those  changes  Mhii-h  now  so  de- 
light us."  ^^^  The  flowers  have  been  greatly  modilied  in  shaj)e  from 
a  flat  to  a  globular  form.  Anemone  and  ranunculus  like  raees.'** 
which  differ  in  the  form  and  arrangement  of  tlie  florets,  luive 
arisen;  also  dwarfed  races,  one  of  which  is  only  eiirhteen  indies  in 
height.  The  seeds  vary  much  in  size.  The  ]ietals  an-  uniformly 
coloured  or  tipped  or  striped,  and  present  an  almost  inliuile  di- 
versity of  tints.  Seedlings  of  fourteen  ditterent  colours""  have 
been  raised  from  the  same  plant:  yet,  as  Mr.  Sal)ine  has  reniarked. 
"  many  of  the  seedlings  follow  their  parents  in  colour."  The  jjo- 
riod  of  flowering  has  been  considera])ly  hastened,  and  this  has  prolj- 
ably  been  eflfectwl  bv  continued  selection.  Salisbury,  writing  ISdS, 
says   that   they   then   flowered   from   September   to   November;   in 

flora,    in    'Transact.    Hort.    See.,'  i^«  '  TransM.-t.   Ilort.   Soc..*   vol. 

vol    iv    n    10  iii..  1'^'-<^.  n.  2•l.^. 

i''«  Snli'slmry        in       'Transact.  loo  x.oudon's  •Onnlener's  Mai:.. 
Hort.    Soc.,'   vol.   i.,   1812,   pp.   84,  vol.  vi..  is:'.<>.  p.  77. 
92.      A    semi-donble    variety    was  I'^i  Loudon  s'  Kucydop.  of  Oar- 
produced  in  Madrid  in  1790.  deuiug,'  p.  lO.ij. 


386 


FLOWERS. 


Chap.  X. 


1828  some  new  dwarf  varieties  began  flowering  in  June;  "^  and 
J\lr.  Grieve  informs  me  that  the  dA\arf  purple  Zelinda  in  his  garden 
is  in  full  bloom  by  the  middle  of  June  and  sometimes  even  earlier. 
■Slight  constitutional  differences  iiave  been  observed  between  cer- 
tain varieties:  thus,  some  kinds  succeed  much  better  in  one  part  of 
JEngland  than  in  another;  "^  and  it  has  been  noticed  that  some  va- 
rieties require  much  more  moisture  than  others.^'-** 

Such  flowers  as  the  carnation,  common  tulip,  and  hyacinth, 
which  are  believed  to  be  descended,  each  from  a  single  wild  form, 
present  innumerable  varieties,  differing  almost  exclusively  in  the 
size,  form,  and  colour  of  the  flowers.  These  and  some  other  an- 
ciently cultivated  plants  which  have  been  long  propagated  by  off- 
:sets,  pipings,  bulbs,  &e.,  become  so  excessively  variable,  that  al- 
most each  new  plant  raised  from  seed  forms  a  new  variety,  "  all  of 
which  to  describe  particularly,"  as  old  Gerarde  wrote*^  in  1597, 
•"  were  to  roll  Sisyphus's  stone  or  to  number  the  sands." 

Hyacinth  (Hijacinthus  orientalis). — It  may,  however,  be  worth 
while  to  give  a  short  account  of  this  plant,  which  was  introduced 
into  England  in  1596  from  the  Levant.'"^  The  petals  of  the  origi- 
nal flower,  says  Mr.  Paul,  were  narrow,  wrinkled,  pointed,  and  of 
a  flimsy  texture;  now  they  are  broad,  smooth,  solid,  and  rounded. 
The  erectness,  breadth,  and  length  of  the  whole  spike,  and  the  size 
•of  the  flowers,  have  all  increased.  The  colours  have  been  intensi- 
fied and  diversified.  Gerarde,  in  1597,  enumerates  four,  and  Park- 
inson, in  1629,  eight  varieties.  Now  the  varieties  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  they  were  still  more  numerous  a  century  ago.  Mr.  Paul 
remarks  that  "  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  Hyacinths  of  1629 
with  those  of  1864,  and  to  mark  the  improvement.  Two  hundred 
and  thirty-five  years  have  elapsed  since  then,  and  this  simple 
flower  serves  well  to  illustrate  the  great  fact  that  the  original 
iorms  of  nature  do  not  remain  fixed  and  stationary,  at  least  when 
brought  under  cultivation.  While  looking  at  the  extremes, we  must 
not,  however,  forget  that  there  are  intermediate  stages  which  are  for 
the  most  part  lost  to  us.  Nature  will  sometimes  indulge  herself 
with  a  leap,  but  as  a  rule  her  march  is  slow  and  gradual."  He  adds 
that  the  cultivator  should  have  "  in  his  mind  an  ideal  of  beauty, 
for  the  realisation  of  which  he  works  with  head  and  hand."  We 
thus  see  how  clearlv  IMr.  Paul,  an  eminentlv  successful  cultivator 
of  this  flower,  appreciates  the  action  of  methodical  selection. 

In  a  curious  and  apparently  trustworthy  treatise,  published  at 
Amsterdam^""  in  1768,  it  is  stated  that  nearly  2000  sorts  were  then 


13-  '  Transnct.  Hort.  Soc'  vol. 
i.  p.  91:  and  Loudon's  'Gnrdener's 
Majr..*  vol.   iii..  1828.  p.  179. 

i'*3  Mr.  Wildman,  in  'Gardener's 
Chron..'  184.3.  p.  87.  '  Cottage 
Gardener.'  April  8,  185fi.  p.  .33. 

i^*  M.  Faivre  has  given  an  in- 
teresting account  of  the  succes- 
sive variations  of  tlie  Chinese 
primrose,  since  its  introduction 
into  Europe  about  the  year  1820: 


'  Revue  des  Cours  Scientifiques,' 
June,    1869.    p.   428. 

i'*^  The  best  and  fullest  account 
of  this  plant  which  I  have  mot 
with  is  bv  a  famous  horticultur- 
ist, Mr.  Paul,  of  Walthani,  in  the 
'  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1864,  p. 
342. 

1D6  'Des  .Tacinthes,  de  leur  Ana- 
tomic, Reproduction,  et  Culture,' 
Amsterdam,    1768. 


Chap.  X.  FLOWERS.  387 

known;  but  in  18G4  Mr.  Paul  found  only  700  in  the  largest  garden 
at  Haarlem.  In  this  treatise  it  is  said  that  not  an  instance  is 
known  of  any  one  variety  reproducing  itself  truly  by  seed:  the 
white  kinds,  however,  now  ^'•'"  almost  always  yield  white  hyacinths, 
and  the  yellow  kinds  come  nearly  true.  The  hyacinth  is'  remark- 
able from  having  given  rise  to  varieties  with  bright  blue,  pink,  and 
distinctly  yellow  flowers.  These  three  primary  colours  do  not 
occur  in  the  varieties  of  anj^  other  species;  nor  do  they  often  all 
occur  even  in  the  distinct  species  of  the  same  genus.  Although 
the  several  kinds  of  hyacinths  difler  but  slightly  from  each  other 
except  in  colour,  yet  each  kind  has  its  own  individual  character, 
which  can  be  recognised  by  a  highly  educated  eye ;  thus  the  writer 
of  the  Amsterdam  treatise  asserts  (p.  43)  that  some  experienced 
florists,  such  as  the  famous  G.  Voorhelm,  seldom  failed  in  a  collec- 
tion of  above  twelve  hundred  sorts  to  recognise  each  variety  by 
the  bulb  alone!  This  same  writer  mentions  some  few  shiirular 
variations:  for  instance,  the  hyacinth  commonly  produces  six 
leaves,  but  there  is  one  kind  (p.  35)  which  scarcely  ever  has  more 
than  three  leaves;  another  never  more  than  five;  whilst  others 
regularly  produce  either  seven  or  eight  leaves.  A  variety,  called 
la  Coryphee,  invariably  produces  (p.  116)  two  flower-stems,  united 
together  and  covered  by  one  skin.  The  flower-stem  in  another  kind 
(p.  128)  comes  out  of  the  ground  in  a  coloured  sheath,  before  the 
appearance  of  the  leaves,  and  is  consequently  liable  to  suff"er  from 
frost.  Another  variety  always  pushes  a  second  flower-stem  after  the 
first  has  begun  to  develop  itself.  Lastly,  white  hyacinths  with  red, 
purple,  or  violet  centres  (p.  129)  are  the  most  liable  to  rot.  Thus, 
the  hyacinth,  like  so  many  previous  plants,  when  long  cultivated 
and  closely  watched,  is  found  to  ofl'er  many  singular  variations. 

In  the  two  last  chapters  I  have  given  in  some  detail  the 
range  of  variation,  and  the  history,  as  far  as  known,  of  a 
considerable  number  of  plants,  which  have  been  cultivated  for 
various  purposes.  But  some  of  the  most  variable  plants, 
such  as  Kidney-beans,  Capsicum,  Millets,  Sorghum,  &c.,  have 
been  passed  over;  for  botanists  are  not  at  all  agreed  which 
kinds  ought  to  rank  as  species  and  which  as  varieties ;  and 
the  wild  parent-species  are  unknown.^"**  Many  plants  long 
cultivated  in  tropical  countries,  such  as  the  Banana,  have 
produced  numerous  varieties ;  but  as  these  have  never  been  de- 
scribed with  even  moderate  care,  they  are  here  also  passed  over. 
JSTevertheless,  a  sufficient,  and  perhaps  more  than  suflficient, 
number  of  cases  have  been  given,  so  that  the  reader  may  be 
enabled  to  judge  for  himself  on  the  nature  and  great  amount 
of  variation  which  cultivated  plants  have  undergone. 

10^  Alph.     de     Candolle,     '  Geo-  ''>^  Alph.     de    Caudolle,     '  G6o- 

graph.  Eot.,'  p.  1082.  graph.  Bot.,'  p.  983. 

26 


388 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XI 


CHAPTER   XL 


ON   BUD-VARIATION,    AND   ON    CERTAIN   ANOMALOUS   MODES   OF 
REPRODUCTION   AND   VARIATION. 

Bud-variation  in  the  peach,  plum,  cherry,  vine,  gooseberry,  currant,  and 
banana,  as  shown  by  the  modified  fruit — In  flowers :  camellias, 
azaleas,  chrysanthemums,  roses,  etc.— On  the  running  of  the  colour 
in  carnations — Bud-variations  in  leaves — Variations  by  suckers,  tu- 
bers, and  bulbs — On  the  breaking  of  tulips — Bud-variations  graduate 
into  changes  consequent  on  changed  conditions  of  life — Graft-hybrids 
— On  the  segregation  of  the  parental  characters  in  seminal  hybrids  by 
bud- variation — On  the  direct  or  immediate  action  of  foreign  pollen  on 
the  mother-plant — On  the  eflects  in  female  animals  of  a  previous  im- 
pregnation on  the  subsequent  offspring — Conclusion  and  summary. 

This  chapter  will  be  chiefly  devoted  to  a  subject  in  many 
respects  important,  namely,  bud-variation.  By  this  term  I 
include  all  those  sudden  changes  in  structure  or  appearance 
which  occasionally  occur  in  full-gro^vn  plants  in  their  flower- 
buds  or  leaf-buds.  Gardeners  call  such  changes  "  Sports ;  " 
but  this,  as  previously  remarked,  is  an  ill-defined  expression, 
as  it  has  often  been  applied  to  strongly-marked  variations  in 
seedling  plants.  The  difference  between  seminal  and  bud  re- 
production is  not  so  great  as  it  at  first  appears;  for  each  bud 
is  in  one  sense  a  new  and  distinct  individual;  but  such  in- 
dividuals are  produced  through  the  formation  of  various 
kinds  of  buds  without  the  aid  of  any  special  apparatus,  whilst 
fertile  seeds  are  produced  by  the  concourse  of  the  two  sexual 
elements.  The  modifications  which  arise  through  bud-varia- 
tion can  generally  be  propagated  to  any  extent  by  grafting, 
budding,  cuttings,  bulbs,  tt-c,  and  occasionally  even  by  seed. 
Some  few  of  our  most  beautiful  and  useful  productions  have 
arisen  by  bud-variation. 

Bud-variations  have  as  yet  been  observed  only  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom;  but  it  is  probable  that  if  compound  ani- 
mals, such  as  corals,  &c.,  had  been  subjected  to  a  long  course 
of  domestication,  they  would  have  varied  by  buds;  for  they 
resemble  plants  in  many  respects.     For  instance,  any  new  or 


Chap.  XL  FRUIT.  38^ 

peculiar  character  presented  by  a  compound  animal  is  propa- 
gated by  budding,  as  occurs  with  differently  coloured  Hydras^ 
and  as  Mr.  Gosse  has  shown  to  be  the  case  with  a  singular 
variety  of  a  true  coral.  Varieties  of  the  Hydra  have  alsa 
been  grafted  on  other  varieties,  and  have  retained  their 
character. 

I  will  in  the  first  place  give  all  the  cases  of  bud-variations 
which  I  have  been  able  to  collect,  and  afterwards  show  their 
importance.^  These  cases  prove  that  those  authors  who,, 
like  Pallas,  attribute  all  variability  to  the  crossing  either  of 
distinct  races,  or  of  distinct  individuals  belonging  to  the 
same  race  but  somewhat  different  from  each  other,  are  in 
error;  as  are  those  authors  who  attribute  all  variability  to 
the  mere  act  of  sexual  union.  jSTor  can  we  account  in  all 
cases  for  the  appearance  through  bud-variation  of  new  char- 
acters by  the  principle  of  reversion  to  long-lost  characters. 
He  who  wishes  to  judge  how  far  the  conditions  of  life  directly 
cause  each  particular  variation  ought  to  reflect  well  on  the 
cases  immediately  to  be  given.  I  will  commence  with  bud- 
variations,  as  exhibited  in  the  fruit,  and  then  pass  on  to 
flowers,  and  finally  to  leaves. 

Peach  {Amygdalus  jjersica). — In  the  last  chapter  I  gave  two- 
case  of  a  peach-ahnond  and  a  double-flowered  ahnond  which  sud- 
denly produced  fruit  closely  resembUng  true  peaches.  I  have  also- 
given  many  case  of  peach-trees  producing  buds,  which,  when  devel- 
oped into  branches,  have  yielded  nectarines.  We  have  seen  that, 
no  less  than  six  named  and  several  unnamed  varieties  of  the  peach 
have  thus  produced  several  verieties  of  nectarine.  I  have  shown 
that  it  is  highly  improbable  that  all  these  peach-trees,  some  of 
which  are  old  varieties,  and  have  been  propagated  by  the  million,, 
are  hybrids  from  the  peach  and  nectarine,  and  that  it  is  opposed 
to  all  analogy  to  attribute  the  occasional  production  of  nectarines 
on  peach-tree'^s  to  the  direct  action  of  pollen  from  some  neighbour- 
ing nectarine-tree.  Several  of  the  cases  are  highh^  remarkai)le,  be- 
cause, firstly,  the  fruit  thus  produced  has  sometimes  been  in  part  a 
nectarine  and  in  part  a  peach;  secondly,  because  nectarines  thus- 
suddenly  produced  have  reproduced  themselves  by  seed;  and  third- 

1  Since  the  publication   of  the  mine;  but  as  these  relate  ohleflr 

first  edition  of  this  work,   I  have  to    cases    occurring    in    Frani-o    I 

found   that  M.   Carriere.   Chef  drs  have  left  my  list  as  it  stood,  add- 

Pepiiiicrrs    nu    Mus.    (VHi^t.    Nat.,  ing  a   few  facts  from   M   Carriore 

in   his  excellent    Essav,    '  Produc-  and  others.     Any  one  who  wishes 

tion    et    Fixation    des    Varietees,  to  study  the  subject  fully  should 

1865,'  has  given  a  list  of  bud-vari-  refer  to  M.   Carriere's  Essay, 
ations    far    more    extensive    than 


390  BUD-VARIATIOX.  Chap.  XI. 

ly,  because  nectarines  are  produced  from  peach-trees  from  seed  as 
well  as  from  buds.  The  seed  of  the  nectarine,  on  the  other  hand, 
occasionally  produces  peaches;  and  we  have  seen  in  one  instance 
that  a  nectarine-tree  yielded  peaches  by  bud-variation.  As  the 
peach  is  certainly  the  oldest  or  primary  A^ariety,  the  production 
of  peaches  from  nectarines,  either  by  seeds  or  buds,  may  perhaps 
be  considered  as  a  case  of  reversion.  Certain  trees  have  also  been 
described  as  indifferently  bearing  peaches  or  nectarines,  and  this 
may  be  considered  as  bud- variation  carried  to  an  extreme  degree. 

The  grosse  Diigiionne  peach  at  Montreuil  produced  "  from  a 
sporting  branch"  the  grosse  niignomtc  tardive,  "a  most  excellent 
variety,"  which  ripens  its  fruit  a  fortnight  later  than  the  parent 
tree,  and  is  equally  good.-  This  same  peach  has  likewise  produced 
by  bud-variation  the  early  grosse  tnlgnonne.  Hunt's  large  tawny 
nectarine  "  originated  from  Hunt's  small  tawnv  nectarine,  but  not 
through  seminal  reproduction."  ^ 

Plums. — Mr.  Knight  states  that  a  tree  of  the  yellow  magnum 
bonum  plum,  forty  years  old,  which  had  always  borne  ordinary 
fruit,  produced  a  branch  which  yielded  red  magnum  bonums.* 
Mr,  Rivers,  of  Sawbridgeworth,  informs  me  (Jan.,  1863)  that  a 
single  tree  out  of  400  or  500  trees  of  the  Early  Prolific  plum,  which 
is  a  purple  kind,  descended  from  an  old  French  variety  bearing 
purple  fruit,  produced  when  about  ten  years  old  bright  yellow 
plums;  these  differed  in  no  respect  except  colour  from  those  on 
the  other  trees,  but  were  unlike  any  other  known  kind  of  yellow 
plum.^ 

Cherry  {Primus  cerasiis). — Mr.  Knight  has  recorded  (ibid.)  the 
case  of  a  branch  of  a  May-Duke  cherry,  which,  though  certainly 
never  grafted,  always  produced  fruit,  ripening  later,  and  more  ob- 
long than  the  fruit  on  the  other  branches.  Another  account  has 
been  given  of  two  May-Duke  cherry-trees  in  Scotland,  with 
branches  bearing  oblong  and  very  fine  fruit,  which  invariably 
ripened,  as  in  Knight's  case,  a  fortnight  later  than  the  other  cher- 
ries." M.  Carriere  gives  (p.  37)  numerous  analogous  cases,  and 
one  of  the  same  tree  bearing  three  kinds  of  fruit. 

Grapes  {Titis  rinifera). — The  black  or  purple  Frontignan  in 
one  case  produced  during  two  successive  years  (and  no  doubt  per- 
manently) spurs  Avliich  bore  white  Frontignan  grapes.  In  another 
case,  on  the  same  footstalk,  the  lower  berries  "  were  well-coloured 
black  Frontignans;  those  next  the  stalk  were  white,  Avith  the 
exception  of  one  black  and  one  streaked  berry;  "  and  altogether 
there  were  fifteen  black  and  twelve  white  berries  on  the  same 
stalk.  In  another  kind  of  grape,  black  and  amber-coloured  ber- 
ries were  produced  in   the   same  cluster.'     Count  Odart   describes 

2  '  Gardener's  Chron.,'   1854,   p.  ^  '  Transact.    Hort.     Soc'    vol. 
821.  ii.  p.  IGO. 

3  Lindley's  '  Guide  to  Orchard.'  ^  See  also  '  Gardener's  Chron.,' 
as  rrnoted  in  '  Gardener's  Chron..'  18G3,  p.  27. 

18.')2,   p.   821.      For  the  Early   mi-  «  '  Gard.  Chron..'  1852,  p.  821. 

gnonne     p'acJi,      see      '  Gardener's  "  '  Gardener's   Chron.,'  1852.   p. 

Chron.,'   18G4,   p.   1251.  629;    1856,    p.    648;    1864,    p.    986. 


Chap.  XI.  FRUIT.  391 

a  variety  which  often  bears  on  the  same  stalk  small  round  and 
large  oblong  berries;  though  the  shape  of  the  berry  is  generally 
a  fixed  charaeter.**  Here  is  another  striking  case  given  on  the 
excellent  authority  of  M.  Carriere:  "  "a  black  Hamburg  grape 
(Frankenthal)  was  cut  down,  and  produced  three  suckers;  one 
of  these  was  layered,  and  after  a  time  produced  much  smaller  ber- 
ries, which  always  ripened  at  least  a  fortnight  earlier  than  the 
others.  Of  the  remaining  two  suckers,  one  produced  e\'ery  year 
fine  grapes,  whilst  the  other,  although  it  set  an  abundance  of 
fruit,  matured  only  a  few,  and  these  of  inferior  quality." 

Gooseberry  {Ribes  (jrossularia) . — A  remarkable  case  has  been 
described  by  Dr.  Lindley  ^"  of  a  bush  which  bore  at  the  same  time 
no  less  than  four  kinds  of  berries,  namely,  hairy  and  red, — smooth, 
small  and  red, — green, — and  yellow  tinged  with  bull';  the  two 
latter  kinds  had  a  different  flavour  from  the  red  berries,  and  their 
seeds  were  coloured  red.  Three  twigs  on  this  bush  grew  close  to- 
gether; the  first  bore  three  yellow  berries  and  one  red;  the  second 
twig  bore  four  yellow  and  one  red;  and  the  third  four  red  and  one 
yellow.  Mr.  Laxton  also  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  a  Red  War- 
rington gooseberry  bearing  both  red  and  yellow  fruit  on  the  same 
branch. 

Currant  {Ribes  rubrum). — A  bush  purchased  as  the  Cham- 
pagne, which  is  a  variety  that  bears  blush-coloured  fruit  interme- 
diate between  red  and  white,  produced  during  fourteen  years  on 
separate  branches  and  mingled  on  the  same  branch,  berries  of  the 
red,  white,  and  champagne  kinds."  The  suspicion  naturally  arises 
that  this  variety  may  have  originated  from  a  cross  between  a  red 
and  white  variety,  and  that  tlie  above  transformation  mny  be  ac- 
counted for  by  reversion  to  both  parent-forms;  but  from  the  fore- 
going complex  case  of  the  gooseberry  this  view  is  doubtful.  In 
France,  a  branch  of  a  red-currant  bush,  about  ten  years  old,  pro- 
duced near  the  summit  five  white  berries,  and  lower  down,  amongst 
the  red  berries,  one  berry  half  red  and  half  white.'-  Alexander 
Braim'^  also  has  often  seen  branches  on  white  currant-trees  bear- 
ing red  berries. 

Pear  {Pi/rus  eommunis). — Bureau  de  la  Malle  states  that  the 
flowers  on  some  trees  of  an  ancient  variety,  the  doifcune  (jalenx, 
were  destroyed  by  frost:  other  flowers  appeared  in  July,  ^liich 
produced  six  pears;  these  exactly  resembled  in  their  skin  and  taste 
the  fruit  of  a  distinct  variety,'  the  (jros  doyenne  bhnir,  but  in 
shape  were  like  the  bon-cJiretien:  it  was  not  ascertained  whether 

Other  eases  are  given  bv   Braim,  cle,'    p.    876.    Mr.     P.     M.ickiMizie 

'  Rejuvenescence,'    in    '  Ray    Soc.  states  that  the  bush  still   contin- 

Bot    Mem   '  1.S53    p.  314.  nes    to    bear   the    throe    knids    (»r 

8  '  Amp^lographie,'     &c.,     1849,  fruit,    "  although    thcy^  have    not 

p    71  been  every  year  alike. 

*  9  'Gardener's   Chronicle.'   1866,  ^-  '  Revue  ITorticolc'  quot(>(l  in 

p    970  '  Gard.   Chronicle.'   1844.    p.   8*. 

"  10  '  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1855,  '^  '  Ro.iuvont'sccnce   in   Najure.' 

pp    597,  612.  Bot.   Memoirs  Ray   Soc,   Ib^S,   p. 

11  '  Gardeupr's  Chron..'  1842.  p.  314. 
873;  1855,  p.  646.     In  the  '  Chroui- 


392  BUD-VARIATION.  Chap.  XL 

this  new  variety  could  be  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting.  The 
same  author  grafted  a  hon-chritlen  on  a  quince,  and  it  produced, 
besides  its  proper  fruit,  an  apparently  new  variety,  of  a  peculiar 
iorni  with  thick  and  rough  skin." 

Apple  [Pijrus  mains).— In  Canada,  a  tree  of  the  variety  called 
Pound  Sweet,  produced,^^  between  two  of  its  proper  fruit,  an  apple 
which  was  well  russeted,  small  in  size,  difi'erent  in  shape,  and 
with  a  short  peduncle.  As  no  russet  apple  grew  anywhere  near, 
this  case  apparently  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  direct  action 
of  foreign  pollen.  M.  Carriere  (p.  38)  mentions  an  analogous  in- 
stance. 1  shall  hereafter  give  cases  of  apple-trees  which  regularly 
produce  fruit  of  two  kinds,  or  half-and-half  fruit;  these  trees  are 
generally  supposed,  and  probably  with  truth,  to  be  of  crossed  par- 
entage, and  that  the  fruit  reverts  to  both  parent-forms. 

Banana  [Mnsa  sapientinm). — Sir.  R.  Schomburgk  states  that 
he  saw  in  St.  Domingo  a  raceme  on  the  Fig  Banana  which  bore 
towards  the  base  125  fruits  of  the  proper  kind;  and  these  were 
succeeded,  as  is  usual,  higher  up  the  raceme,  by  barren  flowers, 
and  these  by  420  fruits,  having  a  widely  different  appearance,  and 
ripening  earlier  than  the  proper  fruit.  The  abnormal  fruit  closely 
resembled,  except  in  being  smaller,  that  of  the  Mnsa  cJiiensis  or 
cavendishil,  which  has  generally  been  ranked  as  a  distinct  species 


16 


Flowers. — Many  cases  have  been  recorded  of  a  whole  plant,  or 
single  branch,  or  bud,  suddenly  producing  flowers  dift'erent  from 
the  proper  type  in  colour,  form,  size,  doubleness,  or  other  charac- 
ter. Half  the  flower,  or  a  smaller  segment,  sometimes  changes 
colour. 

CameUki. — The  myrtle-leaved  species  [C.  mijrti folia),  and  two 
•or  three  varieties  of  the  common  species,  have  been  known  to  pro- 
duce hexagonal  and  imperfectly  quadrangular  flowers;  and  the 
branches  producing  such  flowers  have  been  propagated  by  graft- 
ing.^' The  Pompon  variety  often  bears  "  four  distinguishable  kinds 
■of  flowers — the  pure  white  and  the  red-eyed,  which  appear  pro- 
miscuously; the  brindled  pink  and  the  rose-coloured,  which 
may  be  kept  separate  with  tolerable  certainty  by  grafting  from 
the  branches  that  bear  them."  A  branch,  also,  on  an  old  tree  of 
the  rose-coloured  variety  has  been  seen  to  "  revert  to  the  pure 
white  colour,  an  occurrence  less  common  than  the  departure  from 
it."  '^ 

Cratfrgns  o.ryacantha. — A  dark  pink  hawthorn  has  been  known 
to  throw  out  a  single  tuft  of  pure  white  blossoms;  ^'^  and  Mr.  A. 
-Clapham,  nurseryman,  of  Bedford,  informs  me  that  his  father  had  a 
deep  crimson  thorn  grafted  on  a  white  thorn,  which  during  several 

1*  '  Comptes  Rendus.'  torn.  xli..  i"  '.Tonrnal  of  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.,' 

1855.   p.  804.     The  second  case  is  vol.  ii.   Botany,  p.  l.'^.l. 

given  on  the  authority  of  Gaudi-  ^'  '  Gard.   Chronicle,'  1847,   207. 

cliaiid,    ibid.,    torn,    xxxiv.,    1852,  ^^^  Herbert,        '  Amaryllidaceae,' 

p.  748.  1838.  p.  369. 

15  This    case    is    iriven    in    the  i'-*  *  Gardener's  Chronicle,'  1843, 

"'  Gard.   Chronicle,'   1807,   p.  403.  p.  391. 


Chap.  XI.  FLOWERS.  393 

years,  always  bore,  high  above  the  graft,  bunches  of  white,  pink 
and  deep  crimson  flowers. 

Azalea  indica  is  well  known  often  to  produce  new  varieties  by 
buds.  I  have  myself  seen  several  cases.  A  ])hint  of  Azalea  indiea 
varieyata  has  been  exhibited  bearing  a  truss  of  Uowers  of  A.  hid. 
gledstanesii  "  as  true  as  could  possibly  be  produced,  thus  evidenc- 
ing tlie  origin  of  that  fine  variety."  On  another  plant  of  A.  ind. 
variciiata  a  perfect  flower  of  A.  ind.  lateritia  was  produced;  so 
that  both  gledstanesii  and  lateritia  no  doubt  originally  appeared 
as  sporting  branches  of-  A.  ind.  variegataJ^" 

Hibiscus  iParitium  tricuspis). — A  seedling  of  this  plant,  when 
some  years  old,  produced,  at  Saharunpore,^'  some  branches  "  wliich 
bore  leaves  and  flowers  wideh'  different  from  the  normal  form." 
"  The  abnormal  leaf  is  much  less  divided,  and  not  acuminated. 
The  petals  are  considerably  larger,  and  quite  entire.  There  is  also 
in  the  fresh  state  a  conspicuous,  large,  oblong  gland,  full  of  a  viscid 
secretion,  on  the  back  of  each  of  the  calycine  segments."  Dr. 
King,  who  subsequently  had  charge  of  these  Gardens,  informs  me 
that  a  tree  of  Paritium  tricuspis  (probably  the  very  same  plant) 
growing  there,  had  a  branch  buried  in  the  ground,  apparently  by 
accident;  and  this  branch  changed  its  character  wonderfully,  grow- 
ing like  a  bush,  and  producing  flowers  and  leaves,  resembling  in 
shape  those  of  another  species,  viz.,  P.  tiliaccum.  A  small  liranch 
springing  from  this  bush  near  the  ground,  reverted  to  the  parent- 
form.  Both  forms  were  extensively  propagated  during  several 
years  by  cuttings  and  kept  perfectly  true. 

Althaa  rosea. — A  double  vellow  Hollvhock  suddenlv  turned 
one  year  into  a  pure  white  single  kind;  subsequently  a  branch 
bearing  the  original  double  yellow  floM'ers  reappeared  in  the  midst 
of  the  branches  of  the  single  white  kind." 

Pelargonium. — These  highly  cultivated  plants  seem  eminently 
liable  to  bud-variation.  I  will  give  only  a  few  well-marked  cases, 
Gartner  has  seen  ^^  a  plant  of  P.  zonale  with  a  branch  having  white 
edges,  which  remained  constant  for  years,  and  bore  flowers  of  a 
deeper  red  than  usual.  Generally  speaking,  such  branches  present 
little  or  no  difterence  in  their  flowers:  thus  a  writer-*  pinched  oflf 
the  leading  shoot  of  a  seedling  P.  zonale,  and  it  threw  out  three 
branches,  which  differed  in  the  size  and  colour  of  their  leaves  and 
stems;  but  on  all  three  branches  "the  flowers  were  identical." 
except  in  being  largest  in  the  green-stemmed  variety,  and  smallest 
in  that  with  variegated  foliage:  these  three  varieties  were  sub- 
sequently propagated  and  distributed.  Many  branches,  and  some 
whole  plants,  of  a  variety  called  compactuni,  which  bears  orange- 
scarlet  flowers,  have  been  seen  to   produce   pink   flowers.-^     Hill's 

20  Exhibited  at  Hort.  Soc.  Lon-  23  <  Bj^f^t.ii.jerzt.u^rung/   is-19.    s. 

don.        Report      in      '  Gardener's  76. 
Chron.,'  1S44.  p.  3,37.  -*  '  Journal     of     Horticulture. 

=1  Mr.    W."   Bell.     Bot.     Soc.    of  18G1,  p.  38(>. 
Edinburgh,  Mav,  18(53.  -'  W.  I'.  Ayres,  in  '  Gardener  s 

--  '  Revue  Horticole,'  quoted  in  Chron.,'  1842,  p.  791. 
'Gardener's  Chron.,'  1845,  p.  475. 


394 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XL 


Hector,  which  is  a  pale  red  variety,  produced  a  branch  with  lilac 
flowers,  and  some  trusses  with  both  red  and  lilac  flowers.  This 
apparently  is  a  case  of  reversion,  for  Hill's  Hector  was  a  seedling 
from  a  lilac  variety.""  Here  is  a  better  case  of  reversion:  a  variety 
produced  from  a  complicated  cross,  after  having  been  propagated 
for  five  generations  by  seed,  yielded  by  bud-variation  three  very 
distinct  varieties  which  were  undistinguishable  from  plants, 
"  known  to  have  been  at  some  time  ancestors  of  the  plant  in 
question.''  -'  Of  all  Pelargoniums,  Rollisson's  Unique  seems  to  be 
the  most  sportive;  its  origin  is  not  positively  known,  but  is  be- 
lieved to  be  from  a  cross.  Mr.  Salter,  of  Hammersmith,  states  ^ 
that  he  has  himself  known  this  purple  variety  to  produce  the  lilac, 
the  rose-crimson  or  conspicuum,  and  the  red  or  coccineum  varie- 
ties; the  latter  has  also  produced  the  rose  d'amour ;  so  that  alto- 
gether four  varieties  have  originated  by  bud-variation  from  Rol- 
lisson's  Unique.  Mr.  Salter  remarks  that  these  four  varieties  "  may 
now  be  considered  as  fixed,  although  they  occasionally  produce 
flowers  of  the  original  colour.  This  year  coccineum  has  pushed 
flowers  of  three  different  colours,  red,  rose,  and  lilac,  upon  the 
same  truss,  and  upon  other  trusses  are  flowers  half  red  and  half 
lilac."  Besides  these  four  varieties,  two  other  scarlet  Uniques  are 
known  to  exist,  both  of  which  occasionally  produce  lilac  flowers 
identical  with  Rollisson's  Unique;  -"  but  one  at  least  of  these  did 
not  arise  through  bud-variation,  but  is  believed  to  be  a  seedling 
from  Rollisson's  Unique.^"  There  are,  also,  in  the  trade  ^^  two 
other  slightly  different  varieties,  of  unknown  origin,  of  Rollisson's 
Unique:  so  that  altogether  we  have  a  curiously  complex  case  of 
variation  both  by  buds  and  seeds.^-  Here  is  a  still  more  complex 
case:  M.  Rafarin  states  that  a  pale  rose-coloured  variety  produced  a 
branch  bearing  deep  red  flowers.  "  Cuttings  were  taken  from  this 
'  sport,'  from  Mhich  20  plants  were  raised,  which  flowered  in  1S07, 
when  it  was  found  that  scarcely  two  were  alike."  Some  resembled 
the  parent-form,  some  resembled  the  sport,  some  bore  both  kinds 
of  flowers:  and  even  some  of  the  petals  on  the  same  floAver  were 
rose-coloured  and  others  red.^^  An  English  wild  plant,  the  Gera- 
nium, pratense,  when  cultivated  in  a  garden,  has  been  seen  to  pro- 
duce on  the  same  plant  both  blue  and  white,  and  striped  blue  and 
white  flowers.^* 

Chri/seuithemum. — This  plant  frequently  sports,  both  by  its  lat- 
eral branches  and  occasionally  by  suckers.     A  seedling  raised  by 


26  W.  P.  Ayres.  il)id. 

27  Dr.  Maxwell  Masters,  '  Pop. 
Science  Review,'  July,  1872,  p. 
250. 

-8  '  Gardener's  Cliron..'  18G1,  p. 
9G8. 

29  Ibid.,  ISGl.  p.  945. 

30  W.  Paul,  in  '  Gardener's 
Chron..'  18G1.  p.  9G8. 

31  Ibid.,  p.  945. 

32  For  other  cases  of  bud-vari- 
ation   in    this    same    variety,    see 


'  Gardener's  Chron.,'  ISGl,  pp. 
578,  GOO.  925.  For  other  distinct 
cnses  of  bud-variation  in  the 
genus  Pelargonium,  sre  '  Cottage 
Gardener.'  1800,   p.  194. 

33  Dr.   Maxwell  Masters.    '  Pop. 
Science    Review,' 
254. 

3^  Rev.  W.  T. 
don's  '  Gard.  Mag 
p.  93. 


July,     1872,    p. 


Bree. 
,'  vol. 


in 
iii.. 


Lon- 
1832, 


Chap.  XI.  FLOWERS. 


39; 


Mr.  Salter  has  produced  by  bud-variation  six  distinct  sorts,  fiv.* 
different  in  colour  and  one  in  folia-jro,  all  of  wlii.li  mv  now  lixcil  " 
i  A  variety  called  cedo  miUi  bears  small  yellow  flowers,  but  habitii- 
'  ally  produces  branches  with  white  llowers;  and  a  sperinien  wuh 
exhibited,  which  Professor  T.  Dyer  saw,  before  tiio  Horticultural 
Society.  The  varieties  which  were  tirst  inlrodiKcd  fmui  China 
were  so  excessively  variable,  "  that  it  was  extremely  didicult  to  tell 
which  was  the  original  colour  of  the  variety,  and*  which  was  the 
sport."  The  same  plant  would  produce  one  year  onlv  bulT-col- 
oured,  and  next  year  only  rose-coloured  flower's;  and  tlicn  woiihl 
change  again,  or  produce  at  the  same  time  flowers  of  both  colours. 
These  fluctuating  varieties  are  now  all  lost,  and,  when  a  branch 
sports  into  a  new  variety,  it  can  generally  be  propagated  and  kept 
true;  but,  as  Mr.  Salter  remarks,  "every  sport  should  be  thor- 
oughly tested  in  different  soils  before  it  can  be  really  considered  a* 
fixed,  as  many  have  been  known  to  run  back  when  planted  in  rich 
compost;  but  when  sufficient  care  and  time  are  expended  in  prov- 
ing, there  will  exist  little  danger  of  subsequent  disappointment." 
Mr.  Salter  informs  me  that  with  all  the  varieties  the  commonest 
kind  of  bud-variation  is  the  production  of  yellow  flowers,  and,  a* 
this  is  the  primordial  colour,  these  cases  may  be  attributed  to  re- 
version. Mr.  Salter  has  given  me  a  list  of  seven  differently  col- 
oured chrysanthemums,  which  have  all  produced  branches  with 
yellow  flowers;  but  three  of  them  have  also  sported  into  other 
colours.  With  any  change  of  colour  in  the  flower,  the  foliage  gen- 
erally changes  in  a  corresponding  manner  in  lightness  or  darkness. 
Another  Compositous  plant,  namely,  Cenfdiivld  cifdniis,  when 
cultivated  in  a  garden,  not  unfrequently  produces  on  the  same  root 
flowers  of  four  different  colours,  viz.,  blue,  white,  dark-purple, 
and  parti-coloured.^"  The  flow^ers  of  Anthemis  also  vary  on  the 
same  plant.^' 

Roses. — Many  varieties  of  the  Rose  are  known  or  are  believed 
to  have  originated  by  bud-variation.^^  The  common  double  moss- 
rose  was  imported  into  England  from  Italy  about  the  year  173.")."* 
Its  origin  is  unknown,  but  from  analogy  it  probably  arose  fntin 
the  Provence  rose  {R.  centifoJia)  by  bud-variation;  for  the 
branches  of  the  common  moss-rose  have  several  times  been  known 
to  produce  Provence  roses,  wholly  or  partially  destitute  of  moss: 
I  have  seen  one  such  instance,  and  several  others  have  been  re- 
corded.^°  Mr.  Rivers  also  informs  me  that  he  raised  two  or  three 
roses  of  the  Provence  class  from  seed  of  the  old  single  moss-rose;  " 
and  this  latter  kind  was  produced  in  1807  by  bud-variation  from 

35  '  The  Chrysanthemum:  its  ^^  Uv.  Shailer,  quoted  In  '  Gar- 
Historv  and  Culture,'  by  J.  Sal-  dener's'  Chronicle,'  IMS,  i)a;;e 
ter,  1S6.5.  p.  41,   &c.  759.  .     „     .     o       .        1 

36  Bree,  in  Loudon's  '  Gard.  •'*'  '  Transact.  Ilort.  Soc  .  vol. 
Maj?.,'  vol.  viii.,  1832.  p.  93.  iv.    1S22,    p.    137;    '  (Jard    C  hron.. 

"  Bronn,    *  Geschichte   der   Na-  1842.  p.  422. 
tur,'  B.  ii.  s.  123.  "  Sec   also    Loudon  s    '  Arborc- 

38  T.   Rivers,    'Rose  Amateur's  turn,'  vol.  ii.  p.  780. 
Guide,'  1837,  p.  4. 


396 


BUD-V\1RIATI0N. 


Chap.  XI. 


the  common  moss-rose.  The  white  moss-rose  was  also  produced 
in  1788  by  an  offset  from  the  common  red  moss-rose:  it  was  at 
first  pale  blush-coloured,  but  became  white  b}^  continued  budding. 
On  cutting  down  the  shoots  which  had  produced  this  white  moss- 
rose,  two  weak  shoots  were  thrown  up,  and  buds  from  these  yield- 
ed the  beautiful  striped  moss-rose.  The  common  moss-rose  has 
yielded  by  bud-variation,  besides  the  old  single  red  moss-rose,  the 
old  scarlet  semi-double  moss-rose,  and  the  sage-leaf  moss-rose, 
which  "  has  a  delicate  shell-like  form,  and  is  of  a  beautiful  blush 
colour;  it  is  now  (1852)  nearly  extinct."'*-  A  white  moss-rose  has 
been  seen  to  bear  a  flower  half  Avhite  and  half  pink."  Although 
several  moss-roses  have  thus  certainly  arisen  by  bud-variation,  the 
greater  number  probably  owe  their  origin  to  seed  of  moss-roses. 
Por  JNIr.  Rivers  informs  me  that  his  seedlings  from  the  old  single 
moss-rose  almost  always  produced  moss-roses;  and  the  old  single 
moss-rose  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  product  by  bud-variation  of 
the  double  moss-rose  originally  imported  from  Italy.  That  the 
original  mass-rose  was  the  product  of  bud-variation  is  probable, 
from  the  facts  above  given  and  from  the  de  Meaux  moss-rose  (also 
a  variety  of  R.  centifolia)  **  having  appeared  as  a  sporting  branch 
on  the  common  rose  de  Meaux.  Professor  Caspary  has  carefully 
described  "  the  case  of  a  six-year-old  white  moss-rose,  which  sent 
up  several  suckers,  one  of  which  was  thorny,  and  produced  red 
flowers,  destitute  of  moss,  exactly  like  those  of  the  Provence  rose 
{R.  centifolia) :  another  shoot  bore  both  kinds  of  flowers,  and  in 
addition  longitudinally  striped  flowers.  As  this  white  moss-rose 
had  been  grafted  on  the  Provence  rose.  Professor  Caspary  attrib- 
utes the  above  changes  to  the  influence  of  the  stock;  but  from  the 
facts  already  given,  and  from  others  to  be  given,  bud-variation, 
with  reversion,  is  probably  a  sufficient  explanation. 

Many  other  instances  could  be  added  of  roses  varying  by  buds. 
The  white  Provence  rose  apparently  originated  in  this  way.*"  M. 
Carriere  states  (p.  36)  that  he  himself  knows  of  five  varieties  thus 
produced  by  the  Baronne  Prevost.  The  double  and  highly-col- 
oured Belladonna  rose  has  produced  by  suckers  both  semi-double 
and  almost  single  white  roses;  *'  whilst  suckers  from  one  of  these 
semi-double  white  roses  reverted  to  perfectly  characterised  Bella- 
donnas. In  St.  Domingo,  varieties  of  the  China  rose  propagated 
by  cuttings  often  revert  after  a  year  or  two  into  the  old  China 
rose.**  Many  cases  have  been  recorded  of  roses  suddenly  becoming 
striped  or  changing  their  character  by  segments:   some  plants  of 


"  All  these  statements  on  the 
origin  of  the  several  varieties  of 
the  moss-rose  are  jriven  on  the 
authority  of  Mr.  Shailer,  who,  to- 
gether witli  his  father,  was  con- 
cerned in  their  original  propaga- 
tion. See  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1852,"  p. 
759. 

"  '  Gard.    Chron.,'  1845,   p.  5G4. 

**  '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol. 
ii.   p.  242. 


«  '  Schriften  der  Phys.  Oekon 
Gesell.  zu  Konigsberg,'  Feb.  3, 
1865,  s.  4.  S"''  also  Dr.  Caspary's 
paper  in  '  Transactions  of  the 
Hort.  Congress  of  Amsterdam,' 
1805. 

*«  '  Gard.   Chron.,'  1852,  p.  759. 

•*'  '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol. 
ii.  p.  242. 

"  Sir  R.  Schomburgk,  '  Proc. 
Linn.   Soc.  Bot.,'   vol.  ii.   p.  132. 


Chap.  XL  FLOWERS.  397 

the  Comtesse  de  Chabrillant,  whicli  is  properly  rose-colDurcd,  were 
exhibited  in  1862/-'  with  crimson  tlakes  on  a  rose  ground.  I  have 
seen  the  Beauty  of  Billiard  with  a  quarter  an.i  with  luilf  the 
flower  almost  white.  The  Austrian  bramble  (A'.  Intra)  11..1  rare- 
ly 50  pi-oduees  branches  with  pure  yellow  llowcrs;  and  I'rofessor 
Henslow  has  seen  exactly  half  the  flower  of  a  pure  yellow,  and  1 
have  seen  narrow  yellow  streaks  on  a  single  petal,  *of  which  the 
rest  was  the  usual  copper  colour. 

The  following  cases  are  highly  remarkable.  ;Mr.  Kivcrs,  as  I 
am  informed  by  him,  possessed  a  new  French  rose  with  delicate 
smooth  shoots,  pale  glaucous-green  leaves,  and  semi-double  j>ale 
flesh-coloured  flowers  striped  with  dark  red;  and  on  l)ranclies  thus 
characterised  there  suddenly  appeared  in  more  than  one  instan<-o, 
the  famous  old  rose  called  the  Baronne  Prevost,  with  its  stout 
thorn}^  shoots,  and  immense,  uniforndy  and  richly  ccdoured  double 
flowers:  so  that  in  this  case  the  shoots,  leaves,  and  llowers,  all  at 
once  changed  their  character  by  bud-variation.  According  to  ^L 
Verlot,^^  a  variety  called  Rosa  caiuiabifoliu,  which  has  peculiarly 
shaped  leaflets,  and  differs  from  every  member  of  the  family  in 
the  leaves  being  opposite  instead  of  alternate,  suddcidy  appeared 
on  a  plant  of  R.  alba  in  the  gardens  of  the  Luxembourg.  J^astly, 
"  a  running  shoot "  was  observed  by  ]\Ir.  H.  Curtis  ^^  on  the  old 
Aimee  Vibert  Noisette,  and  he  budded  it  on  Celine:  thus  a  climb- 
ing Aimee  Vibert  was  first  produced  and  afterwards  propagated. 

Dicnithus. — It  is  quite  common  with  the  Sweet  William  (/). 
barhafus)  to  see  differently  coloured  flowers  on  the  same  root;  and 
I  have  observed  on  the  same  truss  four  difl"erently  coloured  and 
shaded  flowers.  Carnations  and  pinks  (/).  caryophiiJIiis,  &c.)  occa- 
sionally vary  by  layers;  and  some  kinds  are  so  little  certain  in 
character  that  they  are  called  by  floriculturists  "catch-flowers."*' 
Mr.  Dickson  has  ably  discussed  the  "  running  "  of  parti-coloured  or 
striped  carnations,  and  says  it  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the 
compost  in  w^iich  they  are  grown:  "layers  from  the  same  clean 
flower  would  come  part  of  them  clean  and  part  foul,  even  when 
subjected  to  precisely  the  same  treatment;  and  frequently  one 
flower  alone  appears  influenced  by  the  taint,  the  remainder  coming 
perfectly  clean."  "  This  running  of  the  parti-coloured  flowers  ap- 
parently is  a  case  of  reversion  by  buds  to  the  original  uniform  tint 
of  the  species. 

I  will  briefly  mention  some  other  cases  of  bud-variation  to  show 
how  manv  plants  belonging  to  many  orders  have  varied  in  their 
flowers;  and  many  others  might  be  added.  I  have  seen  on  a  snap- 
dragon {Antirrhi'uum  majus)  white,  ]nnk,  and  striped  llowers  on 
the  same  plant,  and  branches  with  strijied  flowers  on  a  red-eolourod 
variety.    In  a  double  stock  (Mathiola  iricami)  I  have  seen  a  branch 

«  '  Garrl     Chron   '  1862.   p.  619.  ".  journal     of      llortleulturo.' 

soHopkirk's    'Flora    Anomala,'        ^^''^^''^'i^^'^'r'-  'V  -•'■^- .  -.cio    „    n- 

51  '  Sur     la     Production     et     la  "  Ibid.,  1S4'J,  p.  00. 

Fixation  des  Varieties,'  1805,  p.  4. 


398 


BUD-VAEIATION. 


Chap.  XI. 


bearing  single  flowers;  and  on  a  dingy-purple  double  variety  of 
the  wall-flower  {Cheiranthus  cheiri),  a  branch  which  had  reverted 
to  the  ordinary  copper  colour.  On  other  branches  of  the  same 
plant  some  purple  and  the  other  coppery;  but  some  of  the  smaller 
petals  towards  the  centre  of  these  same  flowers  were  purple  longitu- 
dinally streaked  with  coppery  colour,  or  coppery  streaked  with  pur- 
ple. A  Cyclamen  ^^  has  been  observed  to  bear  white  and  pink 
flowers  of  two  forms,  the  one  resembling  the  Persicum  strain,  and 
the  other  the  Coum  strain.  Oenothera  biennis  has  been  seen'" 
bearing  flowers  of  three  different  colours.  The  hybrid  Gladiolus 
coli'ilii  occasionally  bears  uniformly  coloured  flowers,  and  one  case 
is  recorded  ^'  of  all  the  flowers  on  a  plant  thus  changing  colour. 
A  Fuchsia  has  been  seen  ^^  bearing  two  kinds  of  flowers.  Mirahilis 
jalapa  is  eminently  sportive,  sometimes  bearing  on  the  same  root 
pure  red,  yellow,  and  white  flowers,  and  others  striped  with  various 
combinations  of  these  three  colours.^^  The  plants  of  the  Mirabilis, 
which  bear  such  extraordinary  variable  flowers  in  most,  probably 
in  all,  cases,  owe  their  origin,  as  shown  by  Professor  Lecoq,  to 
crosses  between  differently  coloured  varieties. 

Leaves  and  Shoots. — Changes,  through  bud-variation,  in  fruits 
and  flowers  have  hitherto  been  treated  of;  incidentallv  some  re- 
niarkable  modifications  in  the  leaves  and  shoots  of  the  rose  and 
Paritium,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  in  the  foliage  of  the  Pelargonium 
and  Chrysanthemum,  have  been  noticed.  I  will  now  add  a  few 
more  cases  of  variation  in  leaf-buds.  Verlot  ^°  states  that  on 
Aralia  trifoliata,  which  properly  has  leaves  with  three  leaflets, 
branches  frequently'  appear  bearing  simple  leaves  of  various  forms; 
these  can  be  propagated  by  buds  or  by  grafting,  and  have  given 
rise,  as  he  states,  to  several  nominal  species. 

"With  respect  to  trees,  the  history  of  but  few  of  the  many  varie- 
ties with  curious  or  ornamental  foliage  is  known ;  but  several  prob- 
ably have  originated  by  bud- variation.  Here  is  one  case: — ^An  old 
ash-tree  [Fraxinus  excelsior)  in  the  grounds  of  Necton,  as  Mr. 
Mason  states,  "  for  many  years  has  had  one  bough  of  a  totally 
different  character  to  the  rest  of  the  tree,  or  of  any  other  ash-tree 
which  I  have  seen;  being  short-jointed  and  densely  covered  with 
foliage."  It  was  ascertained  that  this  variety  could  be  propagated 
by  grafts.''^  The  varieties  of  some  trees  with  cut  leaves,  as  the 
oak-leaved  laburnum,  the  parsley-leaved  vine,  and  especially  the 
fern-leaved  beech,  are  apt  to  revert  by  buds  to  the  common  forms.®^ 
The  fern-like  leaves  of  the  beech  sometimes  revert  only  partially, 


"  '  Gard.   Chron.,'  1867,  p.  235. 

s"  Gartner,  '  Bastarderzeuguiig,' 
s.  305. 

5'  Mr.  D.  Beaton,  in  '  Cottage 
Gardener,'  1860,  p.  250. 

58  '  Gard.   Thron.'   1850.    p.    536. 

"  Braun,  'Rav  Soc.  Bot.  Mem..' 
1853,  p.  315;  Hopkirk's  '  Flora 
Anomala,'    p.    164;    Lecoq,    '  Geo- 


graph.  Bot.  de  rEurope.'  torn, 
iii.,  1854,  p.  405;  and  '  De  la  F6- 
condation,'   1862,  p.   303. 

«"  '  Des  Varietes,'  1865,  p.  5. 

61  W.  Mason,  in  'Gard.  Chron.,' 
1843,   p.  878. 

«2  Alex.  Braun,  '  Ray  Soc.  Bot. 
Mem.,'  1853,  p.  315;  'Gard. 
Chron.,'  1841,  p.  329. 


Chap.  XI.  LEAVES  AND  SHOOTS.  399 

and  the  branches  display  here  and  there  sprouts  bearing  common 
leaves,  fern-like,  and  variously  shaped  leaves.  Such  cases  diir«'r 
but  little  from  the  so-called  heterophyllus  varietii*^,  in  wliiili  the 
tree  habitually  bears  leaves  of  various  forms;  but  it  is  probable 
that  most  heterophyllus  trees  have  originated  as  seedlings.  There 
is  a  sub-variety  of  the  weeping  willow  with  leaves  rollcnl  up  into 
a  spiral  coil;  and  Mr.  Masters  states  that  a  troo  of  this  kind  kept 
true  in  his  garden  for  twenty-five  years,  and  tlicn  thr.-w  out  a 
single  upright  shoot  bearing  flat  leaves."^ 

I  have  often  noticed  single  twigs  and  branches  on  beech  and 
other  trees  with  their  leaves  fully  expanded  before  liiosc  on  the 
other  branches  had  opened;  and  as  there  was  nothing  in  their 
exposure  or  character  to  account  for  this  diflerence,  I  presume  that 
they  had  appeared  as  bud-variations,  like  the  early  and  late  fruit- 
maturing  varieties  of  the  peach  and  nectarine. 

Cryptogamic  plants  are  liable  to  bud-variati(m,  for  fronds  on 
the  same  fern  often  display  remarkable  deviations  of  structure. 
Spores,  which  are  of  the  nature  of  buds,  taken  from  sucli  abnormal 
fronds,  reproduce,  with  remarkable  fidelity,  the  same  variety,  after 
passing  through  the  sexual  stage." 

With  respect  to  colour,  leaves  often  become  by  bud-variation 
zoned,  blotched,  or  spotted  with  wliite,  yello\A',  and  red;  and  this 
occasionally  occurs  even  with  plants  in  a  state  of  nature.  Varie- 
gation, however,  appears  still  more  frequenth'  in  plants  produced 
from  seed;  even  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves  being  thus  alfecled." 
There  have  been  endless  disputes  whether  variegation  sliould  be 
considered  as  a  disease.  In  a  future  chapter  we  shall  see  that  it  is 
much  influenced,  both  in  the  case  of  seedlings  and  of  mature  plants, 
by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Plants  which  have  become  variegated 
as  seedlings,  generally  transmit  their  character  by  seed  to  a  large 
proportion  of  their  progeny;  and  ]\Ir.  Salter  has  given  me  a  list  of 
eight  genera  in  which  this  occurred.*^^  Sir  F.  Pollock  has  given  me 
more  precise  information:  he  sowed  seed  from  a  variegated  ])l!tnt 
of  Ballota  nigra  which  was  found  growing  Mild,  and  thirty  per 
cent,  of  the  seedlings  Avere  variegated;  seed  from  tliese  latter  being 
sown,  sixty  per  cent,  came  up  variegated.  When  branches  become 
variegated  by  bud-variation,  and  the  variety  is  attempted  to  be 
propagated  by  seed,  the  seedlings  are  rarely  variegated:  Mr.  Salter 
found  this  to  be  the  case  with  plants  belonging  to  eleven  genera, 
in  which  the  greater  number  of  the  seedlings  proved  to  be  green- 
leaved;  yet  a  few  were  slightly  variegated,  or  were  quite  wliite.  but 
none  were  worth  keeping.  Variegated  plants,  wlicthi-r  oriuMually 
produced  from  seeds  or  buds,  can  generally  be  propagated  by  bud- 
ding, grafting,  &c.;  but  all  are  apt  to  revert  by  bud-variation  to 

S3  Dr.    M.    T.    Masters,    '  Royal  tanical   Society  EdlnburKh.'  Jmie 

Institution    Lecture,'     March    16,  12.  lS(i2.  „     „       ,     ,. 

I860  ""^   •  .Tournal     of     Hortlonltiiro. 

""/?rc    Mr.    W.    K.    Bridffman's  ISfil.    p.    .TiC;     V.-rlot.     '  Pes    Va- 

curious    paper     in     '  Annals    and  rietes.'  p.  Td.  ,,     ,   ^     ,  ^       ,.     ,, 
Mnf^.    of    Nat.    Hist.,'    December,  *=" /?rf  al.so  Verlot,   '  Des  ^a^lf'- 

18G1;     also     Mr.     J.     Scott,     '  Bo-  t6s,'  p.  74. 


400 


BUD-VARIATION. 


Chap.  XI. 


their  ordinary  foliage.  This  tendency,  however,  differs  much  in 
the  varieties  of  even  the  same  species;  for  instance,  the  golden- 
striped  variety  of  Euonymus  japonicus  "  is  very  liable  to  run  back 
to  the  green-leaved,  while  the  silver-striped  variety  hardly  ever 
changes." "  I  have  seen  a  variety  of  the  holly,  with  its  leaves 
having  a  central  yellow  patch,  which  had  everywhere  partially 
reverted  to  the  ordinary  foliage,  so  that  on  the  same  small  branch 
there  were  many  twigs  of  both  kinds.  In  the  pelargonium,  and  in 
some  other  plants,  variegation  is  generally  accompanied  by  some 
degree  of  dwarfing,  as  is  well  exemplified  in  the  "  Dandy  "'  pelargo- 
nium. When  such  dwarf  varieties  sport  back  by  buds  or  suckers 
to  the  ordinary  foliage,  the  dwarfed  stature  still  remains."®  It  is 
remarkable  that  plants  propagated  from  branches  which  have  re- 
verted from  variegated  to  plain  leaves"''  do  not  always  (or  never, 
as  one  observer  asserts)  perfectly  resemble  the  original  plain-leaved 
plant  from  which  the  variegated  branch  arose:  it  seems  that  a 
plant,  in  passing  by  bud-variation  from  plain  leaves  to  variegated, 
and  back  again  from  variegated  to  plain,  is  generally  in  some  de- 
gree affected  so  as  to  assume  a  slightly  different  aspect. 

Bud-variation  by  Suckers,  Tubers,  and  Bulbs. — All  the  cases 
hitherto  given  of  bud-variation  in  fruits,  flowers,  leaves,  and  shoots, 
have  been  confined  to  buds  on  the  stems  or  branches,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  cases  incidentally  noticed  of  varying  suckers  in 
the  rose,  pelargonium,  and  chrysanthemum.  I  will  now  give  a  few 
instances  of  variation  in  subterranean  buds,  that  is,  by  suckers, 
tubers,  and  bulbs;  not  that  there  is  any  essential  difference  be- 
tween buds  above  and  beneath  the  ground.  Mr.  Salter  informs  me 
that  two  variegated  varieties  of  Phlox  originated  as  suckers;  but 
I  should  not  have  thought  these  worth  mentioning,  had  not  ]\Ir. 
Salter  found,  after  repeated  trials,  that  he  could  not  propagate 
them  by  "  root-joints,"  whereas,  the  variegated  Tussilago  farfara 
can  thus  be  safely  propagated ;  ™  but  this  latter  plant  may  have 
originated  as  a  variegated  seedling,  which  would  account  for  its 
greater  fixedness  of  character.  The  Barberry  (Berberis  ruhjaris) 
offers  an  analogous  case;  there  is  a  well-known  variety  with  seed- 
less fruit,  which  can  be  propagated  by  cuttings  or  layers;  but 
suckers  always  revert  to  the  common  form,  which  produces  fruit 
containing  seeds."  My  father  repeatedly  tried  this  experiment, 
and  always  with  the  same  result.  I  may  here  mention  that  maize 
and  wheat  sometimes  produce  new  varieties  from  the  stock  or  root, 
as  does  the  sugar-cane.'- 

"  '  Gard.   Chron.,'  1844,   p.  86. 

«8  Ibifi.,   1861,   p.  9fi8. 

«Ml)ifl..  1861,  p.  433;  'Cottage 
Gardoncr.'    18(;0.    p.   2. 

""^  M.  Lemoine  (quoted  in 
'Gard.  Chron..'  1867,  p.  74)  has 
lately  ol)served  that  the  Symphy- 
tum with  variegated  leaves  can- 
not be  propa crated  by  division  of 
the  roots.  He  also  found  that 
out  of  .")00  plants  of  a  Phlox  with 
striped  flowers,    which   had   been 


propagated  by  root-division,  only 
seven  or  eight  produced  striped 
flowers.  See  also,  on  striped  Pe- 
larsroniums,  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  1867, 
p.   1000. 

■^1  Anderson's  '  Recreations  in 
Agriculture,'  vol.   v.  p.  152. 

''-  For  wheat,  sec  '  Improve- 
ment of  the  Cereals,'  by  P.  Shir- 
refP.  1873.  p.  47.  For  maize  and 
sugar-cane.  Carriere.  ibid.,  pp. 
40,     42.      With     respect     to     the 


Chap.  XL         BY  SUCKERS,  TUBERS,  AND  lilLJiS. 


401 


Turning  now  to  tubers:  in  the  coniuion  Potato  (Solunum  tii- 
herosum)  a  single  bud  or  eye  sometimes  varies  and  produces  a  new- 
variety;  or,  occasionally,  and  this  is  a  much  more  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance, all  the  eyes  in  a  tuber  vary  in  the  same  manner  and 
at  the  same  time,  so  that  the  whole  tuber  assumes  a  new  character. 
For  instance,  a  single  eye  in  a  tuber  of  the  old  Forty- fold  potato, 
which  is  a  purple  variety,  was  observed  "  to  become  white;  this  eve 
was  cut  out  and  planted  separately,  and  the  kinvl  has  since  be^n 
largely  propagated.  Kemp's  potato  is  properly  white,  Ijut  a  plant 
in  Lancashire  produced  two  tubers  which  were  red,  and  two  whi<-li 
were  white;  the  red  kind  was  propagated  in  the  u>-:ual  manner  bv 
eyes,  and  kept  true  to  its  new  colour,  and,  being  found  a  more 
productive  variety,  soon  became  widely  known  under  the  name  of 
Taylors  Fortij-fohh''^  The  old  Forty-fold  potato,  as  already  stated, 
is  a  purple  variety;  but  a  plant  long  cultivated  on  the  same 
ground  produced,  not,  as  in  the  case  above  given,  a  single  while 
eye,  but  a  whole  white  tuber,  which  has  since  been  propagated  and 
keeps  true.'^^  Several  cases  have  been  recorded  of  large  portions 
of  whole  rows  of  potatoes  slightly  changing  their  character.'" 

Dahlias  propagated  by  tubers  under  the  hot  climate  of  St. 
Domingo  vary  much;  Sir  R.  Schomburgk  gives  the  case  of  the 
"  Butterfly  variety,"  which  the  second  year  produced  on  the  same 
plant  "double  and  single  flowers;  here  white  petals  edged  with 
maroon;  there  of  a  uniform  deep  maroon."'"  Mr.  Bree  also  men- 
tions a  plant  "  which  bore  two  different  kinds  of  self-coloured 
flowers,  as  well  as  a  third  kind  which  partook  of  both  colour* 
beautifully  intermixed."'*  Another  case  is  described  of  a  dahlia 
with  purple  flowers  which  bore  a  white  flower  streaked  witli 
purple.'** 

Considering  how  long  and  extensively  many  Bulbous  plants 
have  been  cultivated,  and  how  numerous  are  the  varieties  i)ro- 
duced  from  seed,  these  plants  have  not  perhaps  varied  so  much  by 
oflfsets, — that  is,  by  the  production  of  new  bulbs, — as  might  have 
been  expected.  With  the  Hyacinth,  however,  several  instan<-e* 
have  been  given  by  M.  Carriere.     A  case  also  has  been  recorded  of 


sui2:ar-cane,  Mr.  J.  Caldwell,  of 
Mauritius,  savs  ('  Gardener's 
Chronicle,'  1874,  p.  316)  the  Rib- 
bon cane  has  liere  "  sported  into 
a  perfectly  green  cane  and  a  per- 
fectly red  cane  from  the  same 
head.  I  verified  this  myself,  and 
saw  at  least  200  instances  in  the 
same  plantation,  and  the  fact  has 
completely  upset  all  our  precon- 
ceived ideas  of  the  difference  of 
colour  being  permanent.  The 
conversion  of  a  striped  cane  into 
a  green  cane  was  not  uncommon, 
but  the  change  into  a  red  c;tne 
universally  disbelieved,  and  that 
both  events  should  occur  in  the 
same  plant  incredible.  I  find, 
however,     in    Fleischman's    '  Re- 


74 

75 


port  on  Sugar  ruItiv:itIon  in 
Louisiana  for  1S4S.'  l)y  the  .Vniorl- 
can  Patent  Office,  tiie  (•lr<Mun- 
stance  is  mentioned,  but  he  say.* 
he  never  saw   it   himself." 

T3  '  Oard.  Chron.,'  Isr.T,  p.  i\(V2. 
Gard.  Ghron.,'  1841,  p.  814. 
Ibid.,  18.".  p.  VAX 

"«  Ibid.,  18,">7,  p.  <iT!».  fire  also 
Philijis.  '  Hist,  of  Vegetables.' 
vol.  ii.  p.  01,  for  other  and  simi- 
lar accomits. 

"  'Journal  of  Proe.  Linn.  Soc.,* 
vol.  ii.  Botany,  p.  l.'VJ. 

'S  Loudon's  '  tiard.  Mag.,*  vol. 
viii.,  18;?2.  p.  04. 

-'J  •  Gard.  Chron.,'  1S50,  p.  53G, 
and  1842,  p.  720. 


402  BUD-VARIATIOX.  Chap.  XI. 

a  blue  variety  which  for  three  successive  years  gave  oflFsets  produc- 
ing white  flowers  with  a  red  centre.*"  Another  liyacinth  bore"^  on 
the  same  truss  a  perfectly  pink  and  a  perfectly  blue  flower.  I 
have  seen  a  bulb  producing  at  the  same  time  one  stalk  or  truss 
with  fine  blue  flowers,  another  ^^•ith  fine  red  flowers,  and  a  third 
with  blue  flowers  on  one  side  and  red  on  the  other;  several  of  the 
ilowers  being  also  longitudinally  striped  red  and  blue. 

Mr.  John  Scott  informs  me  that  in  1862  Imatophyllum  minia- 
turn,  in   the   Botanic-  Gardens   of  Edinburgh,   threw   up   a    sucker 
which   differed   from   the   normal   form,   in   the   leaves   being   two- 
ranked  instead  of  four-ranked.     The  leaves  were  also  smaller,  with 
the  upper  surface  raised  instead  of  being  channelled. 

In  the  propagation  of  Tulips,  seedlings  are  raised,  called  selfs 
or  hreeders,  which,  "  consist  of  one  plain  colour  on  a  white  or  yel- 
low bottom.  These,  being  cultivated  on  a  dry  and  rather  poor 
soil,  become  broken  or  variegated  and  produce  new  varieties.  The 
time  that  elapses  before  they  break  varies  from  one  to  twenty 
years  or  more,  and  sometimes  this  change  never  takes  place."  ^^ 
The  broken  or  variegated  colours  which  give  value  to  all  tulips  are 
due  to  bud-variation;  for  although  the  Bybloemens  and  some 
other  kinds  have  been  raised  from  several  distinct  breeders,  yet  all 
the  Baguets  are  said  to  have  come  from  a  single  breeder  or  seed- 
ling. This  bud-variation,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  MM. 
Yilmorin  and  Verlot,*^  is  probably  an  attempt  to  revert  to  that 
Tiniform  colour  which  is  natural  to  the  species.  A  tulip,  however, 
which  has  already  become  broken,  when  treated  with  too  strong 
manure,  is  liable  to  flush  or  lose  by  a  second  act  of  reversion  its 
variegated  colours.  Some  kinds,  as  Imperatrix  Florum,  are  much 
more  liable  than  others  to  flushing;  and  Mr.  Dickson  maintains^* 
that  this  can  no  more  be  accounted  for  than  the  variation  of  any 
other  plant.  He  believes  that  English  growers,  from  care  in  choos- 
ing seed  from  broken  flowers  instead  of  from  plain  flowers,  have 
to  a  certain  extent  diminished  the  tendency  in  flowers  already 
"broken  to  flushing  or  secondary  reversion.  Iris  xiphium,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Carriere  (p.  65),  behaves  in  nearly  the  same  manner,  as 
do  so  many  tulips. 

During  two  consecutive  years  all  the  early  flowers  in  a  bed  of 
Tigridia  conch ifiora^'^  resembled  those  of  the  old  T.  parouia;  but 
the  later  flowers  assumed  their  proper  colour  of  fine  yellow,  spotted 
M'ith  crimson.  An  apparently  authentic  account  has  been  pub- 
lished *'  of  two  forms  of  Hemerocallis,  which  have  been  universally 
considered  as  distinct  species,  changing  into  each  other;  for  the 
roots  of  the  large-flowered  tawny  H.  fulra,  being  divided  and 
planted  in  a  diflferent  soil  and  place,  produced  the  small-flowered 


80  ' 


^£^•^^^'".1^^^''  ^^■'  ^roster-  84  '  Gard.   Chron.,'  1841,  p.  782; 

dam,    1(08,   p.   122.  1842,  p.   .o.^. 

«^; Gard.   Chron..'  184r>.   p.  212.  «5  '  Gard.     Chron.,'     1849,     page 

82  Loudon's     '  Encyclopaedia    of  565. 
Gfirdenlnsr  '  p    1024  ««' Transact.    Linn.    Soc.,'    vol. 

«3     Production     des     Yarietes,'  ii.  p.  354. 
1865,  p.  03. 


Chap.  XI.       BY  SUCKERS,  TUBERS,   AND   BULBS.  403 

E.  flava,  as  well  as  some  intermediate  forms.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  such  cases  as  these  latter,  as  well  as  the  "  flu  shin*,' "  of 
broken  tulips  and  the  "running"  of  parti-coloured  c:u nations,— 
that  is,  their  more  or  less  complete  return  to  a  uniform  tint, — 
ought  to  be  classed  under  bud-variation,  or  ought  to  be  retained 
for  the  chapter  in  which  I  treat  of  the  direct  action  of  the  condi- 
tions of  life  on  organic  beings.  These  cases,  howcvi-r,  liave  this 
much  in  bud-variation,  that  the  change  is  elVected  through  buds 
and  not  through  seminal  reproduction.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  this  ditference — that  in  ordinary  cases  of  bud-variationl 
one  bud  alone  changes,  whilst  in  the  foregoing  cases  all  the  buds 
on  the  same  plant  were  modified  together.  With  the  potato,  we 
have  seen  an  intermediate  case,  for  all  the  eyes  in  one  tuber  simul- 
taneously changed  their  character. 

I  will  conclude  Avith  a  few  allied  cases,  which  may  be  ranked 
either  under  bud-variation,  or  under  the  direct  action  of  the  con- 
ditions of  life.  When  the  common  Hepatica  is  transplant (•<!  from 
its  native  woods,  the  flowers  change  colour,  even  during  ilie  lirst 
year.**'  It  is  notorious  that  the  improved  varieties  of  the  Hearts- 
ease {Viola  tricolor),  M'hen  transplanted,  often  produce  flowers 
widely  different  in  size,  form,  and  colour:  for  instance,  I  trans- 
planted a  large  uniformly-coloured  dark  purple  variety,  whilst  in 
full  flower,  and  it  then  produced  much  smaller,  more  elongated 
flowers,  with  the  lower  petals  yellow;  these  were  succeeded  by 
flowers  marked  with  large  purple  spots,  and  ultinuitely,  towards 
the  end  of  the  same  summer,  by  the  original  dark  puri)]e  flowers. 
The  slight  changes  which  some  fruit-trees  undergo  from  being 
grafted  and  regrafted  on  various  stocks,*^  were  considered  by  An- 
drew Knight  '''•^  as  closely  allied  to  "  sporting  branches,"  or  bud- 
variations.  Again,  we  have  the  case  of  young  fruit-trees  chang- 
ing their  character  as  they  grow  old;  seedling  pears,  for  instance, 
lose  with  age  their  spines  and  improve  in  the  flavour  of  their  fruit. 
Weeping  birch-trees,  when  grafted  on  the  common  variety,  (K;  not 
acquire  a  perfect  pendulous  habit  until  they  grow  old:  on  the 
other  hand,  I  shall  hereafter  give  the  case  of  some  weeping  ashes 
wliich  slowly  and  gradually  assumed  an  upright  habit  of  growth. 
All  such  changes,  dependent  on  age,  may  be  compared  with  the 
changes,  alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter,  which  many  trees  naturally 
undergo;  as  in  the  case  of  the  Deodar  and  Cedar  of  Lcbanc.n, 
which  are  unlike  in  youth,  whilst  they  closely  resemble  each  other 
in  old  age;  and  as  with  certain  oaks,  and  with  some  varieties  of 
the  lime  and  hawthorn.^" 

S'Goflron,    '  De  I'Espece,'   torn.  leaves,  petioles,  potals.  and  flow- 

ii.  p.  S4                        .  or-stalks,      all      widely      (lllT«'n>nt 

ss  M     Carriere    has    latolv    fie-  from    those    of    tlif    Aria.      The 

scribed,  iu  the  '  Reviie  Hortieole  '  crafted    shoots    wtTo    also    mm- 1 

Dec.   1,   18GG,   p.   457).   an   extraor-  hardier,  and  llowcn'd  (':irln'r  than 

dinarv    case.      He   twice   inserted  those  on  the  nn.Lrniftcd   Aria, 

grafts  of  the  Aria  vcstita  on  thorn-  ^^  '  Transact.    Ilort.    ^oc,     vol. 

trees     (epinrs)    growing    in    pots;  ii.  P-J'"'*^-    ,                      -        ...     „^„ 

and  the  grafts,  as  they  grew,  pro-  '■">  For   the    cases    of  />•  »;>'.    ^^ 

duced    shoots    with    bark,    buds,  Alph.  De  CandoUe  In     Bihi.  I  nl- 

27 


4 

1 


404  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

Grafi-liyhrids. — Before  giving  a  summary  on  Bud-varia- 
tion I  will  discuss  some  singular  and  anomalous  cases,  which 
are  more  or  less  closely  related  to  this  same  subject.  I  will 
begin  with  the  famous  case  of  Adam's  laburnum  or  Cytisus 
adami,  a  form  or  hybrid  intermediate  between  two  very  dis- 
tinct species,  namely,  C.  laburnum  and  purpureus,  the  com- 
mon and  purple  laburnum;  but  as  this  tree  has  often  been 
described,  I  will  be  as  brief  as  I  can. 

Throughout  Europe,  in  different  soils  and  under  different  cli- 
mates, branches  on  this  tree  have  rej^eatediy  and  suddenly  reverted 
to  the  two  parent-species  in  their  flowers  and  leaves.  To  behold 
mingled  on  the  same  tree  tufts  of  dingy-red,  bright  yellow,  and 
purple  flowers,  borne  on  branches  having  widely  different  leaves 
and  manner  of  growth,  is  a  surprising  sight.  The  same  raceme 
sometimes  bears  two  kinds  of  flowers;  and  I  have  seen  a  single 
flower  exactly  divided  into  halves,  one  side  being  bright  yellow 
and  the  other  purple;   so  that  one  half  of  the  standard-petal  was  J 

yellow  and  of  larger  size,  and  the  other  half  purple  and  smaller.  'M 
In  another  flower  the  whole  corolla  was  bright  yellow,  but  exactly 
half  the  calyx  was  purple.  In  another,  one  of  the  dingy-red  wing- 
petals  had  a  narrow  bright  yellow  stripe  on  it;  and  lastly,  in  an- 
other flower,  one  of  the  stamens,  which  had  become  slightly  foli- 
aceous,  was  half  yellow  and  half  purple;  so  that  the  tendency  to 
segregation  of  character  or  reversion  affects  even  single  parts  and 
organs."^  The  most  remarkable  fact  about  this  tree  is  that  in  its 
intermediate  state,  even  when  growing  near  both  parent-species, 
it  is  quite  sterile;  but  when  the  flowers  become  pure  yellow  or 
pure  purple  they  yield  seed.  I  believe  that  the  pods  from  the  yel- 
low flowers  yield  a  full  complement  of  seed ;  they  certainly  yield  a 
larger  number.  Two  seedlings  raised  by  ]\Ir.  Herbert  from  such 
seed  ^-  exhibited  a  purple  tinge  on  the  stalks  of  their  flowers ;  but 
several  seedlings  raised  by  myself  resembled  in  every  character  the 
common  laburnum,  with  the  exception  that  some  of  them  had  re- 
markably long  racemes:  these  seedlings  were  perfectly  fertile. 
That  such  purity  of  character  and  fertility  should  be  suddenly  re- 
acquired from  so  hybridised  and  sterile  a  form  is  an  astonishing 
phenomenon.  The  branches  with  purple  flowers  appear  at  first 
sight  exactly  to  resemble  those  of  C.  pm'purcvs ;  but  on  careful 
comparison  I  found  that  they  differed  from  the  pure  species  in 
the  shoots  being  thicker,  the  leaves  a  little  broader,  and  the  flowers 
slightly  shorter,  with  the  corolla  and  calyx  less  brightly  purple; 
the  basal  part  of  the  standard-petal  also  plainly  showed  a  trace  of 

vers.,'     Geneva,     Nov..     1802:    for  '  Gard.  Cliron..'  1842.  p.  ,397;  also 

limes,  &c.,  Loudon's  'Gard.  Mag.,'  Brnun,    in    '  Sitziingsberichte    der 

vol.  xi.,  1835,  p.  503.  Ges.    natnrforschender    Frennde,' 

»i  For      analofious      facts,      see  June,  1873,  p.  63. 
Braun,  'Rejuvenescence,'  \h.  'Ray  o- '  .Tournal  of  Hort.   Soc.,'  vol. 

Soc.  Bot.  Mem.,'  1853,  p,  320;  and  ii.,  1847,  p.  100. 


Chap.  XI.  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  405 

the  yellow  stain.  So  that  the  flowers,  at  least  in  this  instance,  had 
not  perfectly  recovered  their  true  character;  and  in  accordance 
with  this,  they  were  not  perfectly  fertile,  for  many  of  the  pods 
contained  no  seed,  some  produced"  one,  and  very  few  contained  a« 
many  as  two  seeds;  whilst  numerous  pods  on  a  tree  of  the  pure 
C.  purimreus  in  my  garden  contained  three,  four,  and  live  fine 
seeds.  The  pollen,  moreover,  was  very  imperfect,  a  nuiltitude  of 
grains  being  small  and  shrivelled;  and  this  is  u  sin;,'uhir  lad;  for, 
as  we  shall  immediately  see,  the  pollen-grains  in  the  dingy-red  and 
sterile  flowers  on  the  parent-tree,  were,  in  external  appcarsmce,  in  a 
much  better  state,  and  included  very  few  shriveUed  grain?;.  Al- 
though the  pollen  of  the  reverted  purple  Howers  was  in  so  poor  a 
condition,  the  ovules  were  well  formed,  and  the  seeds,  when  ma- 
ture, germinated  freely  with  me.  Mr.  Herbert  raised  plants  from 
seeds  of  the  reverted  purple  flowers,  and  they  dilVered  a  rcry  little 
from  the  usual  state  of  G.  purpurmis.  Some  which  I  raised  in 
the  same  manner  did  not  differ  at  all,  either  in  the  character  of 
their  flowers  or  of  the  whole  bush,  from  the  pure  ('.  purpurcus. 

Professor  Caspary  has  examined  the  ovules  of  the  dingy-red 
and  sterile  flowers  in  several  plants  of  C.  adami  on  tlie  Conti- 
nent,"* and  finds  them  generally  monstrous.  In  three  plants  e.x- 
amined  by  me  in  England,  the  ovules  Avere  likewise  monstrous,  tlie 
nucleus  varying  much  in  shape,  and  projecting  irregularly  beyond 
the  proper  coats.  The  pollen  grains,  on  the  other  hand,  judging 
from  their  external  appearance,  were  remarkably  good,  and  readily 
protruded  their  tubes.  By  repeatedl}'  counting,  under  the  micio- 
scope,  the  proportional  number  of  bad  grains,  Piofessor  Caspary 
ascertained  that  only  2.5  per  cent,  were  bad,  which  is  a  less  pro- 
portion than  in  the  pollen  of  three  pure  species  of  Cytisus  in  their 
cultivated  state,  viz.,  C.  purpureus,  hilmriunn,  and  (il]tinus.  Al- 
though the  pollen  of  C.  adami  is  thus  in  appearance  good,  it  does 
not  follow,  according  to  M.  Naudin's  observation"*  on  ^Mirabilis, 
that  it  would  be  functionally  effective.  The  fact  of  the  ovules  of 
C.  adami  being  monstrous,  and  the  pollen  apparently  sound,  is  all 
the  more  remarkable,  because  it  is  opposed  to  wliat  usually  occurs 
not  only  with  most  hybrids,*^"  but  with  two  hybrids  in  the  same 
genus,  namely  in  C.  purpin'co-elongatus,  and  C.  alpinolahiirniim. 
In  both  these  hybrids,  the  ovules,  as  observed  by  Professor  Cas- 
pary and  myself,  were  well-formed,  whilst  many  of  the  pollen- 
grains  were  ill-formed;  in  the  latter  hybrid  20.3  per  cent.,  and  in 
the  former  no  less  than  84.8  per  cent,  of  the  grains  were  ascertained 
by  Professor  Caspary  to  be"  bad.  This  unusual  condition  of  tiie 
male  and  female  reproductive  elements  in  C.  adami  has  been  uso<i 
by  Professor  Caspary  as  an  argument  against  this  plant  being 
considered  as  an  ordinary  hybrid  pioduccd  from  seed:  but  we 
should  remember  that  with  hybrids  the  ovules  have  not  been  ex- 

93  See  '  Transact,  of  Hort.  Con-  »*  '  Nonvelles  Archives   du   M ti- 
gress of  Amsterdam.'  ISfi.");  but  1  s6imi.'  toni.  i.  ]).  14.'{. 
owe  most  of  the  followint;  infor-  »'''  8rc    on    this    head,     ^auUlo, 
mation  to  Prof.  Caspury's  letters.  ibid.,  p.  141. 


406 


GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


Chap.  XI. 


amined  nearly  so  frequently  as  the  pollen,  and  they  may  be  much 
oftener  imperfect  than  is  generally  supposed.  Dr.  E.  Bornet,  of 
Antibes,  informs  me  (through  Mr.  J.  Traherne  Moggridge)  tliat 
with  hybrid  Cisti  the  ovarium  is  frequently  deformed,  the  ovules 
being  in  some  cases  quite  absent,  and  in  other  cases  incapable  of 
fertilisation. 

Several  theories  have  been  propounded  to  account  for  the  ori- 
gin of  C.  adami,  and  for  the  transformations  which  it  undergoes. 
The  whole  case  has  been  attributed  by  some  authors  to  bud-vari- 
ation; but  considering  the  wide  difTerence  between  C.  laburnum 
and  purpureus,  both  of  which  are  natural  species,  and  considering 
the  sterility  of  the  intermediate  form,  this  view  may  be  summa- 
rily rejected.  We  shall  presently  see  that,  with  hybrid  plants,  two 
embryos  differing  in  their  characters  may  be  developed  within  the 
same  seed  and  cohere;  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  C.  adami 
thus  originated.  Many  botanists  maintain  that  C.  adami  is  a 
hybrid  produced  in  the  common  way  by  seed,  and  that  it  has  re- 
verted by  buds  to  its  two  parent-forrns.  Negative  results  are  not 
of  much  value;  but  Reisseck,  Caspary,  and  myself,  tried  in  vain 
to  cross  C.  lahunium  and  C.  purpureus;  when  1  fertilised  the 
former  with  pollen  of  the  latter,  I  had  the  nearest  approach  to 
success,  for  pods  were  formed,  but  in  sixteen  days  after  the  wither- 
ing of  the  flowers  they  fell  oflF.  Nevertheless,  the  belief  that  C. 
cdami  is  a  spontaneously  produced  hybrid  between  these  two  s})e- 
cies  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  such  hybrids  have  arisen  in  this 
genus.  In  a  bed  of  seedlings  from  C.  elongatus,  which  grew  near 
to  C.  purpureus,  and  was  probably  fertilised  by  it  through  the 
agency  of  insects  (for  these,  as  I  know  by  experiment,  play  an 
important  part  in  the  fertilisation  of  the  laburnum),  the  sterile 
hybrid  C.  purpureo-eloupatus  appeared.^®  Thus,  also,  Waterer's 
laburnum,  the  C.  al  pi  no-laburnum,^^  spontaneously  appeared,  as  1 
am  informed  by  Mr.  Waterer,  in  a  bed  of  seedlings. 

On  the  other  hand,  w^e  have  a  clear  and  distinct  account  given 
to  Poiteau,'*^  by  M.  Adam,  who  raised  the  plant,  showing  that  C. 
■adami  is  not  an  ordinary  hybrid;  but  is  what  may  be  called  a 
graft-hybrid,  that  is,  one  produced  from  the  united  cellular  tissue 


»"  Braun,  in  '  Bot.  Mem.  Ray. 
Soc.,'  1853,  p.  xxiii. 

^■^  This  hybrid  has  never  been 
described.  It  is  exactly  interme- 
diate in  foliage,  time  of  flower- 
ing, dark  stride  at  the  base  of  the 
standard  petal,  hairiness  of  the 
ovarium,  and  in  almost  every 
other  character,  between  C.  lahur- 
num  and  alpiniis:  bnt  it  ap- 
proaches the  former  species  more 
nearly  in  colour,  and  exceeds  it 
in  the  length  of  the  racemes.  We 
have  before  seen  that  20.3  per 
cent,  of  its  pollen-grains  are  in- 
formed and  worthless.  My  plant, 
though  growing  not  above  thirty 
or  forty  yards  from  both  parent- 


species,  during  some  seasons 
yielded  no  good  seeds:  but  in  1866 
it  was  unusually  fertile,  and  its 
long  racemes  produced  from  one 
to  occasionally  even  four  pods. 
Many  of  the  pods  contained  no 
good  seeds,  but  generally  thoy 
contained  a  single  apparently 
good  seed,  sometimes  two,  and  in 
one  case  three  seeds.  Some  of 
these  seeds  germinated,  and  I 
raised  two  trees  from  them;  one 
resembles  the  present  form;  the 
other  has  a  remarkable  dwarf 
character  with  small  leaves,  but 
has  not   vet   flowered. 

9s  'Annales  de  la  Soc.  de  I'Hort. 
de  Paris,'  tom.  vii.,  1830,  p.  93. 


Chap.  XI.  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  40r 

of  two  distinct  species.  M.  Adam  inserted  in  tlic  usual  luaiinor  a- 
shield  of  the  bark  of  G.  purpurvuH  into  a  stock  of  (/.  bihurunm; 
and  the  bud  lay  dormant,  as  often  liapi)ens,  for  a  year;  llic  shield 
then  produced  many  buds  and  shoots,  one  ot  wliich  j^rcw  niort-  up- 
right and  vigorous  with  larger  leaves  than  the  shoots  of  ('.  pur- 
purcus,  and  was  consequently  propagated.  Now  it  deserves  espe- 
cial notice  that  these  plants  were  sold  by  M.  A<lani.  as  a  variety  of 
C.  purpurcus,  before  they  had  flowered;  and  tlu'  account  was  pub- 
lishedy  by  Poiteau  after  the  plants  had  liowered,  but  l)ef<»r»'  they 
had  exhibited  their  remarkable  tendency  to  revert  into  the  two 
parent  species.  So  that  there  was  no  conceivable  motive  for  falsi- 
fication, and.  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  there  could  have  been  any 
error."'*  If  we  admit  as  true  M.  Adam's  account,  we  nuist  admit 
the  extraordinary  fact  that  two  distinct  species  can  unite  by  their 
cellular  tissue,  and  subsequently  produce  a  plant  bearing  leaves 
and  sterile  flowers  intermediate  in  character  between  the  scion  and 
stalk,  and  producing  buds  liable  to  reversion;  in  short,  resembling 
in  every  important  respect  a  hybrid  formed  in  the  ordinaiy  way 
by  seminal  reproduction. 

I  will  therefore  give  all  the  facts  which  I  have  been  able  to 
collect  on  the  formation  of  hybrids  between  distinct  species 
or  varieties,  without  the  intervention  of  the  sexual  organs. 
For  if,  as  I  am  now  convinced,  this  is  possible,  it  is  a  most 
important  fact,  which  will  sooner  or  later  change  the  views 
held  by  physiologists  with  respect  to  sexual  reproduction.  A 
sufficient  body  of  facts  will  afterwards  be  adduced,  showing 
that  the  segregation  or  separation  of  the  characters  of  the 
two  parent-forms  by  bud-variation,  as  in  the  case  of  djtisus 
adami,  is  not  an  unusual  though  a  striking  phenomenon. 
We  shall  further  see  that  a  whole  bud  may  thus  revert,  or 
only  half,  or  some  smaller  segment. 

The  famous  bizzarria  Orange  offers  a  strictly  parallel  case  to 
that  of  Cytisus  adami.  The  gardener  who  in  1044  ni  Florence 
raised  this  tree,  declared  that  it  was  a  seedling  wlncii  had  been 
grafted;  and  after  the  graft  had  perished,  the  stock  sprouted  and 
produced  the  bizzarria.  Gallesio,  who  carefully  exanune.l  several 
living  specimens  and  compared  them  with  the  descrii)ti(m  pven 
by  the  original  describer,  P.  Nato,^««  states  that  the  tree  pro.hu-es 

««  An  account  was  given  in  the  pureu.<^.      I   hayo  .f,f;;;;;;;;'',V;:V,ll!.o^ 

•  Gardener's  Chronicle  '  (1857.  pp.  this  oeenrre.l  "\="'^''l  [,'";',''"  loi 

382,   400)   of  a   common   laburnum  ^.^"IGalies.o.       (.11  ^f  ^''1  >;.,,;  r' 

on   which   grafts   of   C.    purpurus  Ginrd.    Kot     ^^'^y-'T;.  ''V  J_.  f /''^ Vti 

had     been     inserted,     and     which  im    p     11.      I.    lis       r."--'!   .../J'' 

gradually   assumed    the   character  Citrus       IMl.       .    /}';•,;'  ..^.'Ttu,,.,, 

of    C.    adami:     but    I    have    little  9^  if  ^'i^  7"'1V'     ''/'^      /  ?   iJ     ,  * 

doubt  that  C.  adami  had  been  sold  in  par     of  a    ;'',''•'"    "''•"-  •''* 

to  the  purchaser,   who  was  not  a  parently  was  a  niistaki. 
botanist,    in  the  place  of   C.   pur- 


408  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

at  the  same  time  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  identical  with  the  bitter 
orange  and  with  the  citron  of  Florence,  and  likewise  compound 
fruit,  with  the  two  kinds  either  blended  together,  both  externally 
and  internally,  or  segregated  in  various  ways.  This  tree  can  be 
propagated  by  cuttings,  and  retains  its  diversified  character.  The 
so-called  trifacial  orange  of  Alexandria  and  Smyrna  ^"^  resembles  in 
its  general  nature  the  bizzarria,  and  differs  only  in  the  orange 
being  of  the  sweet  kind;  this  and  the  citron  are  blended  together 
in  the  same  fruit,  or  are  separately  produced  on  the  same  tree; 
nothing  is  known  of  its  origin.  In  regard  to  the  bizzarria,  many 
authors  believe  that  it  is  a  graft-hybrid;  Gallesio,  on  the  other  hand, 
thinks  that  it  is  an  ordinary  hybrid,  with  the  habit  of  partially 
reverting  by  buds  to  the  two  parent-forms;  and  we  have  seen  that 
the  species  in  this  genus  often  cross  spontaneously. 

It  is  notorious  that  when  the  variegated  Jessamine  is  budded 
on  the  common  kind,  the  stock  sometimes  produces  buds  bearing 
variegated  leaves:  Mr.  Rivers,  as  he  informs  me,  has  seen  in- 
stances of  this.  The  same  thing  occurs  with  the  Oleander.^"-  Mr. 
Rivers,  on  the  authority  of  a  trustworthy  friend,  states  that  some 
buds  of  a  golden-variegated  ash,  which  were  inserted  into  common 
ashes,  all  died  except  one;  but  the  ash-stocks  were  affected,^"^  and 
produced,  both  above  and  below  the  points  of  insertion  of  the 
plates  of  bark  bearing  the  dead  buds,  shoots  which  bore  variegated 
leaves.  ]\Ir.  J.  Anderson  Henry  has  communicated  to  me  a  nearly 
similar  case:  Mr.  Brown,  of  Perth,  observed  many  years  ago,  in 
a  Highland  glen,  an  ash-tree  with  yellow  leaves;  and  buds  taken 
from  this  tree  were  inserted  into  common  aslies,  which  in  conse- 
quence were  affected,  and  produced  the  Blotched  BrcadaJhane  Ash.  1| 
This  variety  has  been  propagated,  and  has  preserved  its  character  M 
during  the  last  fifty  years.  Weeping  ashes,  also,  were  budded  on  | 
the  affected  stocks,  and  became  similarly  variegated.  It  has  been  f, 
repeatedly  proved  that  several  species  of  Abutilon,  on  wliich  the  'f 
variegated  A.  thompsonii  has  been  grafted,  become  variegated. '^"^  7 

Maiiy  authors  consider  variegation  as  the  result  of  disease;  and  '^^ 
the  foregoing  cases  may  be  looked  at  as  the  direct  result  of  the  j, 
inoculation  of  a  disease  or  some  weakness.  This  has  been  almost  | 
proved  to  be  the  case  by  ]Morren  in  the  excellent  paper  just  re-  ^ 

ferred  to,  who  shows  that  even  a  leaf  inserted  by  its  footstalk  into 
the  bark  of  the  stock  is  sufficient  to  communicate  variegation  to  ' 
it,  though  the  leaf  soon  perishes.  Even  fully  formed  leaves  on  the 
stock  of  Abutilon  are  sometimes  affected  by  the  graft  and  become 
variegated.  Variegation  is  much  influenced,  as  we  shall  hereafter 
see,  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  .the  plants  are  grown;  and  it 

"1  '  Gard.  Chron.,'  18o5,  p.  628.  his  '  Treatise  on  Husbandry,'  vol. 

See  also  Prof.  Caspary,  in  '  Trans-  i.  p.  199. 

act.    Hort.    Congress    of    Amster-  ^°*  Morren,  '  Bnll.  de  I'Acad.  R. 

dam,'  1865.  des  Sciences  de  Belgiqiie,'  2de  s^- 

"'2 Gartner  ('Bastarderzengung,'  ries,    torn,    xxviii..    18fi9.    p.    4PA. 

s.  611)   gives   many  references  on  Also  Magnus,  'Gesellscliaft  nattir- 

this  subject.  forschender       Freunde.       Berlin,* 

103  A     nearly     similar     account  Feb.    21,    1871,    p.    1.3;    ibid.,   June 

was  given  by  Brabley,  in  1724,  in  21,  1870,  and  Oct.  17,  1871.     Also 


i 


Chap.  XI.  GRAFT-IIYBKIDS.  409 

does  not  seem  improbable  tliat  wliatever  clian^'o  in  the  sup  or  tis- 
sues certain  soils  induce,  wliether  or  not  calleil  a  tlisea.sc,  nii^'ht 
spread  from  the  inserted  piece  of  bark  to  tlio  stock.  Hut  a  (•han;.'e 
of  this  kind  cannot  be  considered  to  be  of  the  ualinc  of  a  jiralt- 
hybrid. 

There  is  a  variety  of  the  hazel  with  dark -purple  U-avi's,  like 
those  of  the  copper-beech:  no  one  lias  attril)uted  this  colour  to 
disease,  and  it  apparently  is  only  an  exaggeration  of  a  tint  which 
may  often  be  seen  on  the  leaves  of  the  common  ha/.cl.  When  this 
variety  is  grafted  on  the  common  ha/.el,'"^  it  soiuetimcs  colours,  as 
has  been  asserted, the  leaves  belowthe  graft;  although  nt-gative  evi- 
dence is  not  of  much  value,  I  may  add  that  ^Ir.  Rivers,  wiio  has  pos- 
sessed hundreds  of  such  grafted  trees,  has  never  seen  an  instance. 

Gartner  ^''"  quotes  two  separate  accounts  of  iManches  of  dark 
and  white-fruited  vines  which  had  been  united  in  various  wavs, 
such  as  being  split  longitudinally,  and  then  joined,  &c. ;  and  these 
branches  produced  distinct  bunches  of  giapes  of  the  two  colours, 
and  other  bunches  with  berries,  either  striped,  or  of  an  intermedi- 
ate and  new  tint.  Even  the  leaves  in  one  case  were  variegatetl. 
These  facts  are  the  more  remarkable  because  Andrew  Knight 
never  succeeded  in  raising  variegated  grapes  by  fertilising  white 
kinds  by  pollen  of  dark  kinds;  though,  as  we  have  seen,  he  ob- 
tained seedlings  with  variegated  fruits  and  leaves,  by  fertilising  a 
white  variety  by  the  already  variegated  dark  Aleppo  grape.  Giirt- 
ner  attributes  the  above-quoted  cases  merely  to  bud-variation:  but 
it  is  a  strange  coincidence  that  the  branches  which  had  been  graft- 
ed in  a  peculiar  manner  should  alone  thus  have  varied:  and  H. 
Adorne  de  Tscharner  positively  asserts  that  he  produced  the  de- 
scribed result  more  than  once,  and  could  do  so  at  will,  by  splitting 
and  uniting  the  branches  in  the  manner  described  by  him. 

I  should  not  have  quoted  the  following  case  had  not  the  author 
of  '  Des  Jacinthes '  ^'^'  impressed  me  with  the  belief  not  only  of  his 
extensive  knowledge,  but  of  his  truthfulness:  he  says  that  bulbs 
of  blue  and  red  hyacinths  may  be  cut  in  two,  and  that  they  will 
grow  together  and  throw  up  a'united  stem  (and  this  1  have  myself 
seen)  with  flowers  of  the  two  colours  on  the  opposite  sides.  P.ut 
the  remarkable  point  is.  that  flowers  are  sometimes  produced  with 
the  two  colours  blended  together,  which  makes  the  case  closely 
analogous  Mith  that  of  the  blended  colours  of  the  grapes  on  the 
united  vine  branches. 

In  the  case  of  roses  it  is  siipposed  that  several  graft-hybrids 
have  been  formed,  but  there  is  much  doubt  about  tliese  ca.ses, 
owing  to  the  frequency  of  ordinary  bud-variations.  The  niost 
trustworthv  instance  known  to  me  is  one,  recorded  by  Mr.  Poyn- 
ter,^°^  who*^ assures  me  in  a  letter  of  the  entire  accuracy  of  the 
statement.  Rosa  dcroninisis  had  been  budded  some  yenrs  pre- 
viously on  a  wdiite  Banksian  rose;   and  from   the   much   enlarged 

'Bot.      Zeitunff,'      February      24,  T;  \^^-'^f  •■''';^T'''i-V'k'^;  "i'M '^" 

-|o--|  107  Anisterdiiin.    lil>S.    iv    1-4. 

lo's  London's    '  Arboretum,'    vol.  '''  '  Oanl    Chron..'  ISCo.  p.  G72. 

iv.  p.  2595.  with  a  woodcut. 


410  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

point  of  junction,  whence  the  Devoniensis  and  Banksian  still  con- 
tinued to  grow,  a  third  branch  issued,  which  was  neither  pure 
Banksian  nor  pure  Devoniensis,  but  partook  of  the  character  of 
both;  the  flowers  resembled,  but  were  superior  in  character  to 
those  of  the  variety  called  Lamurqne  (one  of  the  Noisettes),  while 
the  shoots  were  similar  in  their  manner  of  growth  to  those  of  the 
Banksian  rose,  with  the  exception  that  the  longer  and  more  robust 
shoots  were  furnished  with  prickles.  This  rose  was  exhibited  be- 
fore the  Floral  Committee  of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London. 
Dr.  Lindley  examined  it  and  concluded  that  it  had  certainly  been 
produced  by  the  mingling  of  R.  hanks  ice  with  some  rose  like  i?. 
devoniensis,  "  for  while  it  was  very  greatly  increased  in  vigour  and 
in  size  of  all  the  parts,  the  leaves  were  half-way  between  a  Bank- 
sian and  Tea-scented  rose."  It  appears  that  rose-groweis  were 
previously  aware  that  the  Banksian  rose  sometimes  affects  other 
roses.  As  Mr.  Poynter's  new  variety  is  intermediate  in  its  fruit 
and  foliage  between  the  stock  and  scion,  and  as  it  arose  from  the 
point  of  junction  between  the  two,  it  is  very  improbable  that  it 
owes  it  origin  to  mere  bud-variation,  independently  of  the  mutual 
influence  of  the  stock  and  scion. 

Lastly,  with  respect  to  potatoes.  Mr.  R.  Trail  stated  in  1867 
before  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgh  (and  has  since  given  me 
fuller  information),  that  several  j^ears  ago  he  cut  about  sixty  blue 
and  white  potatoes  into  halves  through  the  eyes  or  buds,  and  then 
carefully  joined  them,  destroying  at  the  same  time  the  other  eyes. 
Some  of  these  united  tubers  produced  white,  and  others  blue  tu- 
bers; some,  however,  produced  tubers  partly  white  and  partly 
blue;  and  the  tubers  from  about  four  or  five  were  regularly  mot- 
tled with  the  two  colours.  In  these  latter  eases  we  may  conclude 
that  a  stem  had  been  formed  by  the  union  of  the  bisected  buds, 
that  is,  by  graft-hybridisation. 

In  the  'Botanisdie  Zeitung '  (May  16,  1868),  Professor  Hilde- 
brand  gives  an  account  with  a  coloured  figure,  of  his  experiments 
on  two  varieties  which  were  found  during  the  same  season  to  be 
constant  in  character,  namely,  a  somewhat  elongated  rough- 
skinned  red  potato  and  a  rounded  smooth  white  one.  He  in- 
serted buds  reciprocally  into  both  kinds,  destroying  the  other  buds. 
He  thus  raised  two  plants,  and  each  of  these  produced  a  tuber  in- 
termediate in  character  between  the  two  parent-forms.  That  from 
the  red  bud  grafted  into  the  white  tuber,  was  at  one  end  red  and 
rough,  as  the  whole  tuber  ought  to  have  been  if  not  affected;  in 
the  middle  it  was  smooth  with  red  stripes,  and  at  the  other  end 
smooth  and  altogether  white  like  that  of  the  stock. 

Mr.  Taylor,  who  had  received  several  accounts  of  potatoes  hav- 
ing been  grafted  by  wedge-shaped  pieces  of  one  ^'ariety  inserted 
into  another,  though  sceptical  on  the  subject,  made  twenty-four 
experiments  which  he  described  in  detail  before  the  Horticultural 
Society.^""  He  thus  raised  many  new  varieties,  some  like  the  graft 
or  like  the  stock;   others  having  an  intermediate  character.     Sev- 

i«»  See  '  Gard.   Chron.,'  18G9,  p.  220. 


Chap.  XI.  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  411 

eral  persons  witnessed  the  digyin^^  up  of  the  tuhcts  fn.m  these 
graft-hybrids;  and  one  of  them,  Mr.  Jameson,  :i  huge  deah-r  in 
potatoes,  writes  thus,  "  They  were  such  a  mixed  hjt,  as  1  have 
never  before  or  since  seen.  They  were  of  all  c(.|()iirs  an<l  shap«-s. 
some  very  ugly  and  some  very  handsome."  Am. 1  her  witness  h;ivs 
"  some  were  round,  some  kidney,  pink-eyed  kidney,  piebald,  and 
mottled  red  and  purple,  of  all  sliapes  aiid  sizes."  *  Some  of  these 
varieties  have  been  found  valuable,  and  have  lieen  extensively 
propagated.  Mr.  Jameson  took  away  a  large  piebald  potato  which 
he  cut  into  five  sets  and 'propagated;  these  yielded  round,  while, 
red,  and  piebald  potatoes. 

Mr.  Fitzpatrick  followed  a  different  ])lan;  ""  he  grafieil  to- 
gether not  the  tubers  but  the  young  stems  of  varieties  pioilneing 
black,  white,  and  red  ])otatoes.  The  tubers  borne  by  three  of 
these  twin  or  united  plants  were  coloured  in  an  exliaordinary  man- 
ner; one  was  almost  exactly  half  black  and  half  wliite.  so  that 
some  persons  on  seeing  it  thought  that  two  potatoes  had  been  di- 
vided and  rejoined;  other  tubers  were  half  red  and  halt  white,  or 
curiously  mottled  with  red  and  white,  or  with  red  and  black,  ac- 
cording to  the  colours  of  the  graft  and  stock. 

The  testimony  of  Mr.  Fenn  is  of  much  value,  as  he  is  "  a  well 
known  potato-grower "  who  has  raised  many  new  varieties  by 
crossing-  different  kinds  in  the  ordinaiv  manner.  He  considers  it 
"  demonstrated  "  that  new,  intermediate  varieties  can  be  i)roduced 
by  grafting  the  tubers,  though  he  doubts  whether  such  will  prove 
valuable."^  He  made  many  trials  and  laid  the  results,  exhibiting 
specimens,  before  the  Horticultural  Society.  Not  only  w«>re  the 
tubers  affected,  some  being  smooth  and  white  at  one  end,  and 
rough  and  red  at  the  other,  but  the  stems  and  leaA'es  were  modified 
in  their  manner  of  growth,  colour  and  precocity.  Some  of  these 
graft-hybrids  after  being  propagated  for  three  years  still  showed 
in  their  haulms  their  new  character,  different  from  that  of  the  kind 
from  which  the  eyes  had  been  taken.  Mr.  Fenn  gave  twelve  of  the 
tubers  of  the  third  generation  to  Mr.  Alex.  Dean,  who  grew  them, 
and  was  thus  converted  into  a  believer  in  graft-hybritlisation.  hav- 
ing previously  been  a  complete  sceptic.  For  comparison  he  planted 
the  pure  parent-forms  alongside  the  twelve  tubers;  and  found  that 
many  of  the  plants  from  the  latter  "=*  were  intermediate  between 
the  two  parent-forms  in  precocity,  in  the  tallness,  uprightness, 
jointing,  and  robustness  of  the  stems,  and  in  the  size  and  colour  of 
the  leaves. 

Another  experimentalist,  Mr.  Rintoul,  grafted  no  less  than  liftv- 
nine  tubers,  which  differed  in  shape  (some  being  kidneys)  in 
smoothness  and  colour,"^  and  inany  of  the  plants  thus  raised 
"were  intermediate  in  the  tubers  as  well  as  in  the  haulms."  He 
describes  the  more  striking  cases. 

"0  '  Gard.  Chron..'  ISfiO,  p.  8:'.5.  Z?'^"    also     ihid..     ISTO,     pp.     TJ77. 

"I'Gard.  Chron..'  ISnO.  p.  1018,  12S3       , 
with  remarks  bv   Dr.   Masters  on  i>- '  Gard       lin.n.;    is.l.  P    ^j^'.- 
the  adhesion  of  the  united  wedges.  I'S'Gard.  Chrun.,    is.o.  p.  1..im,. 


412  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XI. 

In  1871  I  received  a  letter  from  Mr.  Merrick,  of  Boston,  U.  S.  A., 
"who  states  that,  "  Mr.  Fearing  Burr,  a  very  careful  experimenter 
and  author  of  a  much  valued  book,  '  The  Garden  Vegetables  of 
America,'  has  succeeded  in  producing  distinctly  mottled  and  most 
curious  potatoes — evidently  graft-hybrids,  by  inserting  eyes  from 
blue  or  red  potatoes  into  the  substance  of  white  ones,  after  re- 
moving the  eyes  of  the  latter.  I  have  seen  the  potatoes,  and  they 
are  verv  curious." 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  experiments  made  in  Germany,  since 
the  publication  of  Professor  Hilde brand's  paper.  Herr  ]Magnus  re- 
lates "*  the  results  of  numerous  trials  made  by  Herren  Keuter  and 
Lindemuth,  both  attached  to  the  Roj^al  Gardens  of  Berlin.  They 
inserted  the  eyes  of  red  potatoes  into  white  ones,  and  vice  versa. 
Many  different  forms  partaking  of  the  characters  of  the  inserted 
bud  and  of  the  stock  were  thus  obtained;  for  instance,  some  of  the 
tubers  were  white  with  red  eyes. 

Herr  Magnus  also  exhibited  in  the  following  year  before  the 
same  Society  (Nov.  19,  1872),  the  produce  of  grafts  between  black, 
white,  and  red  potatoes,  made  by  Dr.  Neubert.  These  were  made 
by  uniting  not  the  tubers  but  the  young  stems,  as  was  done  by  ]\Ir. 
Fitzpatrick.  The  result  was  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  all  the 
tubers  thus  produced  were  intermediate  in  character,  tliough  in  a 
variable  degree.  Those  between  the  black  and  the  white  or  the 
red  were  the  most  striking  in  appearance.  Some  from  between  the 
white  and  red  had  one  half  of  one  colour  and  the  other  half  of  the 
other  colour. 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  society  Herr  JNIagnus  communicated 
the  results  of  Dr.  Heimann's  experiments  in  grafting  together  the 
tubers  of  red  Saxon,  blue,  and  elongated  white  potatoes.  The  eyes 
were  removed  by  a  cylindrical  instrument,  and  inserted  into  corre- 
sponding holes  in  other  varieties.  The  plants  thus  produced  yield- 
ed a  great  number  of  tubers,  which  were  intermediate  between 
the  two  parent-forms  in  shape,  and  in  the  colour  both  of  the  flesh 
and  skin. 

Herr  Renter  experimented,"'  by  inserting  wedges  of  the  elon- 
gated White  ^Mexican  potato  into  a  Black  Kidney  potato.  Both 
«orts  are  known  to  be  very  constant,  and  differ  much  not  only  in 
form  and  colour,  but  in  the  eyes  of  the  Black  Kidney  being  deeply 
sunk,  whereas  those  of  the  White  Mexican  are  superficial  and  of  a 
different  shape.  The  tubers  produced  by  these  hybrids  were  in- 
termediate in  colour  and  form  and  some  which  resembled  in  form 
the  graft,  /.  e.,  the  Mexican,  had  eyes  deeply  sunk  and  of  the  same 
shape  as  in  the  stock  or  Black  Kidney. 

Any  one  who  will  attentively  consider  the  abstract  now 
given,  of  the  experiments  made  by  many  observers  in  several 

"*  '  Sitzungsberlchte     der     Ge-  "^  j^^jfi..    Nov.    17,    1874.       See 

sells,     naturforschender    Freuude        also    excellent    remarks    by    Herr 
su  Berlin,'   Oct.   17,   1871.  Magnus. 


Chap.  XL  GRAFT-HYBRIDS. 


413 


countries,  will,  I  think,  be  convinced  that  by  grafting  two 
varieties  of  the  potato  together  in  various  wa.vs,  hybridised 
plants  can  be  produced.  It  should  be  observed  tliat  several 
of  the  experimentalists  are  scientific  horticulturists,  and 
some  of  them  potato-growers  on  a  large  scale,  who,  thougli 
beforehand  sceptical,  have  been  fully  convinced  of  the  possi- 
bility, even  of  the  ease,  of  making  graft-hybrids.  Tlie  oidy 
way  of  escaping  from  this  conclusion  is  to  attribute  all  {\ut 
many  recorded  cases  to  simple  bud-variation.  Undoubtedly 
the  potato,  as  we  have  seen  in  this  chapter,  does  suine- 
times,  though  not  often,  vary  by  buds;  but  it  should  be 
especially  noted  that  it  is  experienced  potato-growers,  whose 
business  it  is  to  look  out  for  new  varieties,  who  have  expressed 
unbounded  astonishment  at  the  number  of  new  forms  pro- 
duced by  graft-hybridisation.  It  may  be  urged  that  it  is 
merely  the  operation  of  grafting,  and  not  the  union  of  two 
kinds,  which  causes  so  extraordinary  an  amount  of  bud-varia- 
tion ;  but  this  objection  is  at  once  answered  by  the  fact  that 
potatoes  are  habitually  propagated  by  the  tubers  being  cut 
into  pieces,  and  the  sole  difference  in  the  case  of  graft-hybrids 
is  that  either  a  half  or  a  smaller  segment  or  a  cylinder  is 
placed  in  close  opposition  with  the  tissue  of  another  variety. 
Moreover,  in  two  cases,  the  young  stems  were  grafted  together, 
and  the  plants  thus  united  yielded  the  same  results  as  when 
the  tubers  were  united.  It  is  an  argument  of  the  greatest 
w^eight  that  when  varieties  are  produced  by  simple  bud-varia- 
tion, they  frequently  present  quite  new  characters;  whereas 
in  all  the  numerous  cases  above  given,  as  Ilerr  Magnus  like- 
wise insists,  the  graft-hybrids  are  intermediate  in  character 
between  the  two  forms  employed.  That  such  a  result  should 
follow  if  the  one  kind  did  not  affect  the  other  is  incredible. 

Characters  of  all  kinds  are  affected  by  graft-hybridisation, 
in  whatever  way  the  grafting  may  have  been  effected.  The 
plants  thus  raised  yield  tubers  which  partake  of  the  widely 
different  colours,  form,  state  of  surface,  position  and  shape 
of  the  eye  of  the  parents;  and  according  to  two  careful  c'b- 
servers  they  are  also  intermediate  in  certain  constitutional 
peculiarities.  But  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  in  all  the 
varieties  of  the  potato,  the  tubers  differ  much  more  than  any 
other  part. 


4,14:  GRAFT-HYBRIDS.  Chap.  XL 

The  potato  affords  the  best  evidence  of  the  possibility  o£ 
the  formation  of  graft-hybrids,  but  we  must  not  overlook  the 
account  given  of  the  origin  of  the  famous  Cytisus  adami  by 
M.  Adam,  who  had  no  conceivable  motive  for  deception,  and 
the  exactly  parallel  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Bizzarria 
orange,  namely  by  graft-hybridisation.  Nor  must  the  cases 
be  undervalued  in  which  different  varieties  or  species  of  vines, 
hyacinths  and  roses,  have  been  grafted  together,  and  have 
yielded  intermediate  forms.  It  is  evident  that  graft-hybrids 
can  be  made  much  more  easily  with  some  plants,  as  the  po- 
tato, than  with  others,  for  instance  our  common  fruit  trees; 
for  these  latter  have  been  grafted  by  the  million  during  manj'^ 
centuries,  and  though  the  graft  is  often  slightly  affected,  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  this  may  not  be  accounted  for,  mere- 
ly by  a  more  or  less  free  supply  of  nutriment.  Nevertheless, 
the  cases  above  given  seem  to  me  to  prove  that  under  certain: 
unknown  conditions  graft-hybridisation  can  be  effected. 

Herr  Magnus  asserts  with  much  truth  that  graft-hybrids, 
resemble  in  all  respects  seminal  hybrids,  including  their 
great  diversity  of  character.  There  is,  however,  a  partial 
exception,  inasmuch  as  the  characters  of  the  two  parent-forms- 
are  not  often  homogeneously  blended  together  in  graft- 
hybrids.  They  much  more  commonly  appear  in  a  segregated 
condition, — that  is,  in  segments  either  at  first,  or  subsequent- 
ly through  reversion.  It  would  seem  that  the  reproductive 
elements  are  not  so  completely  blended  by  grafting  as  by 
sexual  generation.  But  segregation  of  this  kind  occurs  by 
no  means  rarely,  as  will  be  immediately  shown,  in  seminal 
hybrids.  Finally  it  must,  I  think,  be  admitted  that  we  learn 
from  the  foregoing  cases  a  highly  important  physiological 
fact,  namely,  that  the  elements  that  go  to  the  production  of 
a  new  being,  are  not  necessarily  formed  by  the  male  and  fe- 
male organs.  They  are  present  in  the  cellular  tissue  in  such 
a  state  that  they  can  unite  without  the  aid  of  the  sexual  or- 
gans, and  thus  give  rise  to  a  new  bud  partaking  of  the  charac- 
ters of  the  two  parent-forms. 

On  the  segregation  of  the  parental  characters  in  seminal 
hybrids  hy  hud-variation. — I  will  now  give  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  cases  to  show  that  segregation  of  this  kind,  namely,  by 
buds,  may  occur  in  ordinary  hybrids  raised  from  seed. 


Chap.  XI.         SEGREGATION  OF  CIIARACTKUS.  415 

Hybrids  were  raised  by  Ciirtner  between  Troinrnliiin  minus  und 
majus  "•*  which  at  first  produced  flowers  inteniicdiule  in  size,  col- 
our, and  structure  between  their  two  pureiils;  hut  ha«r  in  the 
season  some  of  these  ph\nts  produceil  Uowcrs  in  all  n'>pect.s  like 
those  of  the  mother-form,  min<,ded  with  flowers  still  rclaininj,'  the 
usual  intermediate  condition.  A  hybrid  C'ereus  between  ('.  .sffrrio- 
sissimus  and  phyllanthus,'''  plants  which  are  widely  dillerent  in 
appearance,  produced  for  the  first  three  years  an^ruhir.  five-Ki<leti 
■stems,  and  then  some  fiat  stems  like  those  of  ('.  jthiiUaiitlius.  Kol- 
reuter  also  gives  cases  of  hybrid  Lobelias  and  N'erhascunis.  wliich  at 
first  produced  flowers  of  one  colour,  and  later  in  the  season,  flowers 
of  a  different  colour."^  Naudin"''  raised  forty  hybrids  from  Ihttura 
Iwuis  fertilised  by  D.  stnniioniiDit ;  and  three  of  these  hybrids  pro- 
duced many  capsules,  of  which  a  half,  or  quartei-,  or  lesser  se<;inent 
was  smooth  and  of  small  size,  like  the  capsule  of  the  pure  I),  liri  is, 
the  remaining  part  being  spinose  and  of  larger  size,  like  the  eajisulc 
of  the  pure  D.  stramon'nnit :  from  one  of  these  composite  capsules, 
plants  perfectly  resembling  both  parent-forms  were  raised. 

Turning  now  to  varieties.  A  seed  liny  apple,  conjectured  to  \>c 
of  crossed  parentage,  has  been  described  in  France,'-"  which  bears 
fruit  with  one  half  larger  than  the  other,  of  a  red  colour,  acid 
taste,  and  peculiar  odour;  the  other  side  being  greenish-yellow  and 
very  sweet:  it  is  said  scarcely  ever  to  include  perfectly  developed 
seed.  I  suppose  that  this  is  not  the  same  tree  as  that  which 
Gaudichaud  ^-^  exhibited  before  the  French  institute,  ])earing  on 
the  same  branch  two  distinct  kinds  of  apples,  one  a  reindte  lomji , 
and  the  other  like  a  reinette  Canada  jaundtre:  thin  double-bearing 
variety  can  be  propagated  by  grafts,  and  continues  to  produce 
both  kinds;  its  origin  is  unknown.  The  Rev.  J.  D.  La  Touclie  sent 
me  a  coloured  drawing  of  an  apple  Avliich  he  brought  from  Canada, 
of  which  half,  surrounding  and  including  the  whole  of  the  calyx  and 
the  insertion  of  the  foot-stalk,  is  green,  the  other  half  being  brown 
and  of  the  nature  of  the  pomme  yris  apple,  with  the  line  of  separa- 
tion between  the  two  halves  exactly  defined.  The  tree  was  a  grafted 
one,  and  Mr.  La  Touche  thinks  that  the  branches  which  bore  this 
curious  apple  sprung  from  the  point  of  Junction  of  the  graft  and 
stock:  had  this  fact  been  ascertained,  the  case  would  probably  have 
come  into  the  class  of  graft-hybrids  already  given.  Rut  the  branch 
may  have  sprung  from  the  stock,  which  no  doubt  was  a  seedling. 

Professor  H.  Lecoq,  who  has  made  a  great  number  of  crossings 
between  the  differently  coloured  varieties  of  Mirahilis  ialapii,'^ 
finds  that  in  the  seedlings  the  colours  rarely  cond)ine,  but   form 

116  '  Bastarderzemjuns:,'    s.    540.  "o  '  j/ Hermes.'    .Tan.    U.    ls:!7. 

It  is,   liowever,   doubtful   whether  quoted  in  London  s  '  (.iird.  Ma«.. 

these  phmts  should  be  ranked  as  vol.   xiii.   p.  2:?0.    „      ,       ,       . 
species  or  varieties.  '-^  '  Comptes      Hendus.        torn. 

"'  Giirtner.    il)id..    s.    TwO.  xxxiv.,  is.vj.  j.     ,4<. 

"8  '  .Tonrnal  de  Phvsique,'  torn.  1-2  '  0»'o.<,'rai)h.     Lot.     (!.•_  1  I-.n- 

xxiii.,   l.ST.S.   p.   100.    "'Act.    Acid.  rope,'  toni.    iii..   1S..4.   j)    4u..:   mimI 

St.  Petersbur-h.' 1871,  pt.  i.  p.240.  '  De   la    Fecoudalion.     1m._.    pii^e 

"9  '  Nouvelles  Archives  du  Mu-  302. 
seum,'  tom.  i.  p.  49. 


416  SEGREGATION  OF  CHARACTERS.         Chap.  XI. 

distinct  stripes;  or  half  the  flower  is  of  one  colour  and  half  of  a. 
ditl'erent  colour.  Some  varieties  regularly  bear  flowers  striped 
with  yellow,  white,  and  red;  but  plants  of  such  varieties  occasion- 
ally produce  on  the  same  root  branches  with  uniformly  coloured 
flowers  of  all  three  tints,  and  other  branches  with  half-and-half 
coloured  flowers,  and  others  with  marbled  flowers.  Gallesio  "*• 
crossed  reciprocally  white  and  red  carnations,  and  the  seedlings 
were  striped;  but  some  of  the  striped  plants  also  bore  entirely 
white  and  entirely  red  flowers.  Some  of  these  plants  produced  one 
year  red  flowers  alone,  and  in  the  following  year  striped  flowers; 
or  conversely,  some  plants  after  having  borne  for  two  or  three 
years  striped  flowers,  would  revert  and  bear  exclusively  red  flow- 
ers. It  may  be  worth  mentioning  that  I  fertilised  the  Purple 
Siceet-pea  [Lathyrus  odoratus)  with  pollen  from  the  light-coloured 
Painted  Lady,  seedlings  raised  from  tlie  same  pod  were  not  inter- 
mediate in  character,  but  perfectly  resembled  either  parent.  Later 
in  the  summer,  the  plants  which  had  at  first  borne  flowers  identical 
with  those  of  the  Painted  Lady,  produced  flowers  streaked  and 
blotched  with  purple;  sho^^•ing  in  these  darker  marks  a  tendency 
to  reversion  to  the  mother-varietv.  Andrew  Knight  ^'*  fertilised 
two  white  grapes  with  pollen  of  the  Aleppo  grape,  which  is  darkly 
A^ariegated  both  in  its  leaves  and  fruit.  The  result  was  that  the 
young  seedlings  were  not  at  first  variegated,  but  all  became  varie- 
gated during  the  succeeding  summer;  besides  this,  many  pro- 
duced on  the  same  plant  bunches  of  grapes  which  were  all  black, 
or  all  white,  or  lead-coloured  striped  with  white,  or  white  dotted  .^! 

with  minute  black  stripes ;   and  grapes  of  all  these  shades  could 
frequently  be  found  on  the  same  foot-stalk. 

i  will  append  a  very  curious  case,  not  of  bud-variation,  but  of 
two  cohering  embrvos,  difl"erent  in  character  and  contained  within 
the  same  seed.  A  distinguished  botanist,  JNIr.  G.  H.  Thwaites,^" 
states  that  a  seed  from  Fuchsia  coccinea  fertilised  by  F.  fulycns, 
contained  two  embrvos,  and  was  "  a  true  vegetable  twin."  The 
two  plants  produced  from  the  two  embryos  were  "  extremely  dif- 
ferent in  appearance  and  character,"  though  both  resembled  other 
hybrids  of  the  same  parentage  produced  at  the  same  time.  These 
twin  plants  "  were  closely  coherent,  below  the  two  pairs  of  cotyle- 
don-lea^es,  into  a  single  cylindrical  stem,  so  that  they  had  subse- 
quently the  appearance  of  being  branches  on  one  trunk."  Had  the 
two  united  stems  grown  up  to  their  full  height,  instead  of  dying, 
a  curiously  mixed  hybrid  would  have  been  produced.  A  mongrel 
melon  described  by  Sageret  ^'*^''  i^i'^y  perhaps  have  thus  originated; 
for  the  two  main  branches,  which  arose  from  two  cotyledon-buds, 
produced  very  diff"erent  fruit, — on  the  one  branch  like  that  of  pa- 
ternal variety,  and  on  the  other  branch  like  to  a  certain  extent 
that  of  the  maternal  variety,  the  melon  of  China. 


123 

'  Traite     du     Citrus,' 

1811, 

1-5  '  Annals    and    Mag.    of   Nat. 

p.  45. 

, 

Hist.,'   March.   184S. 

124 

'  Transact.   Linn.   Soc. 

'   vol. 

!'-« '  Pomologie  Physiolog.,'  1830, 

ix.  p. 

268. 

p.   126. 

Chap.  XI.    DIRECT  ACTION  OF  THE  MALE  ELEMENT.      417 

In  most  of  these  cases  of  crossed  varieties,  and  in  some  of 
the  cases  of  crossed  species,  the  colours  proper  to  both  par- 
ents appeared  in  the  seedlingb,  as  soon  as  they  first  H.>wercd, 
in  the  form  of  stripes  or  larger  segments,  or  as  whole  flowers 
or  fruit  of  diiferent  kinds  borne  on  the  same  plant;  and  in 
this  case  the  appearance  of  the  two  colours  cannot  strictly  be 
said  to  be  due  to  reversion,  but  to  some  incapacity  of  fusion. 
When,  however,  the  later  flowers  or  fruit  produced  during'  the 
same  season,  or  during  a  succeeding  year  or  generation,  be- 
come striped  or  half-and-half,  (fee,  the  segregation  of  the  two 
colours  is  strictly  a  case  of  reversion  by  bud-variation. 
Whether  all  the  many  recorded  cases  of  striped  flowers  and 
fruit  are  due  to  previous  hybridisation  and  reversion  is  by 
no  means  clear,  for  instance  with  peaches  and  nectarines, 
moss-roses,  &c.  In  a  future  chapter  I  shall  show  that,  with 
animals  of  crossed  parentage,  the  same  individual  has  been 
knov\7n  to  change  its  character  during  growth,  and  to  revert 
to  one  of  its  parents  which  it  did  not  at  first  resemble.  Fi- 
nally, from  the  various  facts  now  given,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  same  individual  plant,  ^vhether  a  hybrid  or  a  mon- 
grel, sometimes  returns  in  its  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  cither 
wholly  or  by  segments,  to  both  parent-forms. 

O71  the  direct  or  immediate  action  of  the  male  element  on 
the  mother  form. — Another  remarkable  class  of  facts  must 
be  here  considered,  firstly,  because  they  have  a  high  physio- 
logical importance,  and  secondly,  because  they  have  been  sup- 
posed to  account  for  some  cases  of  bud-variation.  I  refer  to 
the  direct  action  of  the  male  element,  not  in  the  ordinary  way 
on  the  ovules,  but  on  certain  parts  of  the  female  plant,  or  in 
case  of  animals  on  the  subsequent  progeny  of  the  female  by  a 
second  male.  I  may  premise  that  with  plants  the  ovarium 
and  the  coats  of  the  ovules  are  obviously  parts  of  the  female, 
and  it  could  not  have  been  anticipated  that  they  would  have 
been  affected  by  the  pollen  of  a  foreign  variety  or  species,  al- 
though the  development  of  the  embryo,  inside  the  embryonic 
sack,  inside  the  ovule  and  ovarium,  of  course,  depends  on 
the  male  element. 

Even  as  long  ago   as   1729  it  was  observed  *-'  tlint  white  and 
blue  varieties  of  the  Pea,  when  planted  near  each  other,  nmtually 

12'  '  rhilosophical  Transact.,'  vol.   xliii.,   1744  4r>,   p.    ".LT*. 


418  -ON  THE  DIRECT  ACTION  OF  THE        Chap.  XI. 

crossed,  no  doubt  through  the  agency  of  bees,  and  in  the  autumn 
blue  and  white  peas  were  found  within  the  same  pods,  Wiegmann 
made  an  exactly  similar  observation  in  the  present  century.  The 
same  result  has  followed  several  times  when  a  variety  with  peas 
of  one  colour  has  been  artificially  crossed  by  a  differently-coloured 
variety.'-**  These  statements  led  Gartner,  who  was  highly  sceptical 
on  the  subject,  carefully  to  try  a  long  series  of  experiments:  he 
selected  the  most  constant  varieties,  and  the  result  conclusively 
showed  that  the  colour  of  the  skin  of  the  pea  is  modified  when 
pollen  of  a  differently  coloured  variety  is  used.  This  conclusion 
has  since  been  confirmed  by  experiments  made  by  the  Rev.  J.  M. 

Berkeley.'-^ 

Mr.  Laxton  of  Stamford,  whilst  making  experiments  on  peas  for 
the  express  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  influence  of  foreign  pollen 
on  the  mother-plant,  has  recently'^"  observed  an  important  addi- 
tional fact.  He  fertilised  the  Tall  Sugar-pea,  which  bears  very 
thin  green  pods,  becoming  brownish-white  when  dry,  with  pollen 
of  the  Purple-podded  pea,  which,  as  its  name  expresses,  has  dark- 
purple  pods  with  very  thick  skin,  becoming  pale  reddish  purple 
when  dry.  Mr.  Taxton  has  cultivated  the  Tall  Sugar-pea  during 
twentv  vears,  and  has  never  seen  or  heard  of  it  producing  a  purple 
pod:  nevertheless,  a  flower  fertilised  by  pollen  from  the  purple- 
pod  yielded  a  pod  clouded  with  purplish-red  which  Mr.  Laxton 
kindly  gave  to  me.  A  space  of  about  two  inches  in  length  towards 
the  extremity  of  the  pod,  and  a  smaller  space  near  the  stalk,  were 
thus  coloured.  On  comparing  the  colour  with  that  of  the  purple 
pod,  both  pods  having  been  first  dried  and  then  soaked  in  water, 
it  was  found  to  be  identically  the  same:  and  in  both  the  colour 
was  confined  to  the  cells  lying  immediately  beneath  the  outer 
skin  of  the  pod.  The  valves  of  the  crossed  pod  were  also  decidedly 
thicker  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  pods  of  the  mother-plant, 
but  this  may  possibly  have  been  an  accidental  circumstance,  for 
I  know  not  how  far  their  thickness  is  a  variable  character  in  the 
Tall  Sugar-pea. 

The  peas  of  the  Tall  Sugar-pea,  when  dry,  are  pale  greenish- 
brown,  thickly  covered  with  dots  of  dark  purple  so  minute  as  to  be 
visible  onlv  through  a  lens,  and  Mr.  Laxton  has  never  seen  or  heard 
of  this  variety  producing  a  purple  pea ;  but  in  the  crossed  pod  one 
of  the  peas  was  of  a  uniform  beautiful  violet-purple  tint,  and  a 
second  was  irregularly  clouded  with  pale  purple.  The  colour  lies 
in  the  outer  of  the  two  coats  which  surround  the  pea.  As  the  peas 
of  the  purple-podded  variety  when  dry  are  of  a  pale  greenish-buff, 
it  would  at  first  appear  that  this  remarkable  change  of  colour  in 
the  peas  in  the  crossed  pod  could  not  have  been  caused  by  the 
direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  the  purple-pod :  but  A\'hen  we  bear  in 
mind  that  this  latter  variety  has  purple  flowers,  purple  marks  on 

128  Mr.  Goss  in  '  Transact.  Hort.  129  <  Q^rd.    Chronicle,'    1854,    p. 

Soc'  vol.  y.  p.  234:  and  Gartner,  404. 

'  Bnstarderzeugung,'    1849.    ss.    81  ^^o  ibid.,  1866,  p.  900. 

and  499. 


Chap.  XI.    MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHER-FORM.    419 

its  stipules,  and  purple  pods;  and  that  the  Tall  Sii-;ir  p«-:i  likrwisc 
has  purple  flowers  and  stipules,  and  niicroscopicall y  iiiinuU-  purple 
dots  on  the  peas,  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  lendcncy  to  the 
production  of  purple  in  both  parents  has  in  combination  "in«Kliliod 
the  colour  of  the  peas  in  the  crossed  pod.  After  liaviiij,'  examined 
these  specimens,  I  crossed  the  same  two  varieties,  and  the  peas 
in  one  pod  but  not  the  pods  themselves,  were  clouded  and  tinted 
with  purplish-red  in  a  much  more  conspicuous  manner  than  the 
peas  in  the  uncrossed  pods  produced  at  the  sanu'  time  by  the  same 
plants.  I  may  notice  as  a  caution  that  Mr.  Laxton  sent  nu*  vari- 
ous other  crossed  peas  slightly,  or  even  greatly,  motlilied  in  col- 
our; but  the  change  in  these  cases  was  due,  as  liad  been  >u^peet- 
ed  by  Mr.  Laxton,  to  the  altered  colour  of  the  cotyledons,  seen 
through  the  transparent  coats  of  the  peas;  and  as  the  cotyle- 
dons are  parts  of  the  embryo,  these  eases  are  not  in  any  way 
remarkable. 

Turning  now  to  the  genus  Matthiola.     The  pollen  oi  one  kind 
of  stock  sometimes  aflfects  the  colour  of  the  seeds  of  another  kind, 
used  as  the  mother-plant.     I  give  the  following  case  the  more  read- 
ily, as  Gartner  doubted  similar  statements  previously  made   with 
respect  to  the  stock  by  other  observers.     A  well-known   horticul- 
turist, Major  Trevor  Clarke,  informs  me  ^^^  that  the  seeds  of  the 
large  red-tiowered  biennial  stock,  Mnithioia  tntnud   (Conirdxiu  of 
the  French),  are  light  brown,  and  those  of  the  purple  branching 
Queen   stock    {M.   incana)    are    violet-black;  and    he   found    that, 
when  flowers  of  the  red  stock  were  fertilised  by  pollen  from  the 
purple  stock,  they  yielded  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  hhiclc  seeds.     He 
sent  me  four  pods  from  a  red-flowered  plant,  two  of  which  had  been 
fertilised  by  their  own  pollen,  and  they  included  pale  brown  seed; 
and  two  which  had  been  crossed  by  pollen  from  the  pur])le  kind, 
and  they  included  seeds  all  deeply  tinged  with  black.     These  latter 
seeds  yielded  purple-flowered  plants  like  their  father;   wliiist   the 
pale  brown  seeds  yielded  normal  red-flowered   plants;   and    Major 
Clarke,  by  sowing^imilar  seeds,  has  observed  on  a  greater  scale 
the  same  result.     The  evidence  in  this  case  of  the  direct  aeticm  of 
the  pollen  of  one  species  on  the  colour  of  the  seeds  of  another  spe- 
cies appears  to  me  conclusive. 

Gallesio^'-  fertilised  the  flowers  of  an  orange  with  polli-n  from 
the  lemon;  and  one  fruit  thus  produced  bore  a  longitudinal  stripe 
of  peel  having  the  colour,  flavour,  and  other  characteristics  of  the 
lemon.  Mr.  Anderson  ^^^  fertilised  a  green-lleshed  melon  with  jiol- 
len  from  a  scarlet-fleshed  kind;  in  two  of  the  fruits  "a  >^ensible 
change  was  perceptible:  and  four  other  fruits  were  somewhat  al- 
tered both  internally  and  externally."  The  seeds  of  tlie  two  fir^t- 
mentioned  fruits  produced  plants  partaking  of  the  good  properties 
of  both  parents.     In  the  United  States,  where  Cueurbita.i-a>  are 

"1  s^c  al^o  a  paper  hv  this  oh-  "-  '  Tralte   <lu  ,<;itrns;   P- .  •«')• 

server    road'  he^olV"  the   Intermv        ...  '■^■•<  *  :^^Xr  Ji^^otT'v    t 
tional  Hort.  and  Bot.  Congress  of       m.  p.  318.     -Su  also  \o\.  \.  p.  i>J. 
London,  1S60. 
28 


420 


ON  THE  DIRECT  ACTION  OF  THE        Chap.  XI. 


laro'elv  cultivated,  it  is  the  popular  belief  ^^*  that  the  fruit  is  thus 
directly  affected  by  foreign  pollen;  and  I  have  received  a  similar 
statement  with  respect  to  the  cucumber  in  England.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  grapes  have  been  thus  affected  in  colour,  size,  and 
shape:  in  France  a  pale-coloured  grape  had  its  juice  tinted  by  the 
pollen  of  the  dark-coloured  Teinturier:  in  Germany  a  variety  bore 
berries  which  were  affected  by  the  pollen  of  two  adjoining  kinds; 
some  of  the  berries  being  only  partially  affected  or  mottled.'^^ 

As  long  ago  as  1751  ^^'^  it  was  observed  that,  when  differently- 
coloured  varieties  of  maize  grew  near  each  other,  they  mutually 
affected  each  other's  seeds,  and  this  is  noAV  a  popular  belief  in  the 
United  States.  Dr.  Savi '^'  tried  the  experiment  with  care:  he 
sowed  yellow  and  black-seeded  maize  together,  and  on  the  same  ear 
some  of  the  seeds  were  yellow,  some  black,  and  some  mottled,  the 
differently  coloured  seeds  being  arranged  irregularly  or  in  rows. 
Professor' Hildebrand  has  repeated  the  experiment"-  with  the  pre- 
caution of  ascertaining  that  the  mother-plant  was  true.  A  kind 
bearing  yellow  grains  was  fertilised  with  pollen  of  a  kind  having 
brown  grains,  and  two  ears  produced  yellow  grains  mingled  with 
others  of  a  dirty  violet  tint.  A  third  ear  had  only  yellow  grains, 
but  one  side  of  the  spindle  was  tinted  of  a  reddish-brown ;  so  that 
here  we  have  the  important  fact  of  the  influence  of  the  foreign  pollen 
extending  to  the  axis.  Mr.  Arnold,  in  Canada,  varied  the  experi- 
ment in  an  interesting  manner:  "a  female  flower  was  subjected 
first  to  the  action  of  pollen  from  a  yellow  variety,  and  then  to  that 
from  a  white  variety;  the  result  was  an  ear,  each  grain  of  which 
was  yellow  below  and  white  above."  ^^^  With  other  plants  it  has 
occasionally  been  observed  that  the  crossed  offspring  showed  the 
influence  of  two  kinds  of  pollen,  but  in  this  case  the  two  kinds 
affected  the  mother-plant. 

Mr.  Sabine  states ""  that  he  has  seen  the  form  of  the  nearly 
globular  seed-capsule  of  AmarijUis  vittata  altered  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  pollen  of  another  species,  of  which  the  capsule  has  gib- 
bous angles.  With  an  allied  genus,  a  well-known  botanist,  Maxi- 
mowicz.  has  described  in  detail  the  striking  results  of  reciprocally 
fertilising  Lilium  huJbiferum  and  davuricnm  with  each  other's 
pollen.  Each  species  produced  fruit  not  like  its  own,  but  al- 
most identical  with  that  of  the  pollen-bearing  species;  but  from 
an   accident   only   the   fruit    of   the   latter    species   was    carefully 


134  Prof.  Asa  Gray,  '  Proc. 
Acad.  Sc.,'  Boston,  vol.  iv.,  1860, 
page  21.  I  have  received  state- 
ments to  the  same  effect  from 
in      the      United 


persons 


other 
States. 

135  YoY  the  French  case,  see 
'  Jonrn.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol.  i.  new 
series,  1866,  p.  50.  For  Germany, 
see  M.  Jack,  quoted  in  Henfrey's 
'  Botanical  Gazette.'  vol.  i.  p.  277. 
A  ease  in  England  has  recently 
been  alluded  to  by  the  Rev.  J.  M. 


Berkeley  before  the  Hort.  Soc.  of 
London. 

136  '  philosoph.  Transactions,' 
vol.  xlvii..  17ol-r)2.  p.  206. 

13'  Gallesio.  '  Teoria  della  Ri- 
prodnzione,'   1816,   p.  95. 

i-'s  '  Bot.  Zeitung,'  May,  1868, 
p.  326. 

139  ^re  Dr.  J.  Stockton-Hough, 
in  '  American  Naturalist,'  Jan., 
1874,  p.  29. 

140  '  Transact.  Hort.  Soc.,'  vol. 
v.  p.  69. 


Chap.  XL     MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTHER-FORM.    421 
examined;  the  seeds  were  intermediate  in  the  dcvelonmcnt  of  their 

•  1  1 1  * 


wmo^s.^" 


Fritz  Miiller  fertilised  Cattlcya  IcoixAdi  with  polh-n  of  Kpidcn- 
dron  cinnabariiutm;  and  the  capsules  contained  vciy  few  hccdrt; 
but  these  presented  a  most  wonderful  ai)pearance,  which,  from  the 
description  given,  two  botanists,  Hildcbrand  and  Mnximowicz,  at- 
tribute to  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  the  Kpidcndron.'*' 

Mr.  J.  Anderson  Henry  "^  crossed  Rhudodcndton  dtiHtoKsitr  with 
the  pollen  of  R.  uuttallii,  which  is  one  of  the  largest-llowered  and 
noblest  species  of  the  genus.  The  largest  pod  jooduccd  by  llie 
former  species,  when  fertilised  with  its  own  pollen,  measured  If 
inch  in  length  and  Ih  in  girth;  whilst  three  of  tiie  pods  which  had 
been  fertilised  by  pollen  of  R.  nuttaUii  measured  1^  inch  in  h'nj;th 
and  no  less  than  2  inches  in  girth.  Here  the  elfect  of  the  foreijrn 
pollen  was  apparently  confined  to  increasing  the  si/.e  of  the  ova- 
rium; but  we  must  be  cautious  in  assuming,  as  the  following  case 
shows,  that  size  had  been  transferred  from  the  male  parent  to  the 
capsule  of  the  female  plant.  Mr,  Henry  fertilised  Anihis  hlvjdtdro- 
plujlUi  with  pollen  of  A.  soyeri,  and  the  pods  thus  produced,  of 
which  he  was  so  kind  as  to  send  me  detailed  measurements  and 
sketches,,were  much  larger  in  all  their  dimensions  than  those  natu- 
rally produced  by  either  the  male  or  female  parent-species.  In  a 
future  chapter  we  shall  see  that  the  organs  of  vegetation  in  hybrid 
plants,  independently  of  the  character  of  either  parent,  are  some- 
times developed  to  a  monstrous  size;  and  the  increased  size  of  the 
pods  in  the  foregoing  cases  may  be  an  analogous  fact.  On  tlie 
other  hand,  M.  de  Saporta  informs  me  that  an  isolated  female  plant 
of  Pistncia  vera  is  very  apt  to  be  fertilised  by  the  pollen  of  neigh- 
bouring plants  of  P.  terebinthus,  and  in  this  case  the  fruits  are 
only  half  their  proper  size,  which  he  attributes  to  the  inllucnce  of 
the*^  pollen  of  P.  terehinthus. 

No  case  of  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen  of  one  variety  on  an- 
other is  better  authenticated  or  more  remarkable  than  that  of  the 
common  apple.  The  fruit  here  consists  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
calvx  and  of  the  upper  part  of  the  flow^er-peduncle '"  in  :i  meta- 
morphosed condition,  so  that  the  effects  of  the  foreign  pollen  lias 
extended  even  beyond  the  limits  of  the  ovarium.  Cases  of  apples 
thus  affected  were  recorded  by  Bradley  in  the  early  part  of  the 
last  century;  and  other  cases  are  given  in  old  volumes  of  the 
'Philosophical  Transactions;  '  "=  in  one  of  these  a  Russeting  apple 
and  an  adjoining  kind  mutually  affected  each  other's  fruit;   and 

1"  '  Bull     de    I'Acad.    Imp.    de       ment.  see  the  paper  last  referred 

2%,   rs^l^'^'lJ'f'aufllll'r  >^trJi-       ';•"'; ,•'"""!;;'    of     ....nl,-u»urc/ 

^^^^f^nss^^ri^^^     -r^ "  ;  V'b.,i',;;: ',',','-'S 

pollen,  but  as  It  does  not  appear  atitlionty  of    '  ■■'•   I"  ■  ^  <  •        » 

that   the    mother-plant    was   artl-  paper  translate.           .1     rn.  lle^. 

flelallv   fertlllse.l,    I   have  not  en-  Soe..'    vol.    i..    n.-«    .seil.s.    l.vu, 

teredjnto  „et.,lls.^^,   ^^^^  _  "•  A.  y„,     xlllU    174^.;.    p.    525; 

p.  631.     For  Maximowicz's  judg-  vol.  xlv.,  1(4<-4N  p.  w.. 


422  ^^  THE  DIRECT  ACTION  OF  THE        Chap.  XI. 

in  another  ease  a  smooth  apple  affected  a  rough-coated  kind.  An- 
other instance  has  been  given  ""  of  two  very  different  apple-trees 
growing  close  to  each  other,  which  bore  fruit  resembling  eacii  other, 
but  only  on  the  adjoining  branches.  It  is,  however,  almost  super- 
fluous to  adduce  these  or  other  eases,  after  that  of  the  St.  Valery 
apple,  the  flowers  which,  from  the  abortion  of  the  stamens,  do  not 
produce  pollen,  but  are  fertilised  by  the  girls  of  the  neighbour- 
hood with  pollen  of  many  kinds;  and  they  bear  fruit,  "differing 
from  one  another  in  size,  flavour,  and  colour,  but  resembling  in 
character  the  hermaphrodite  kinds  by  which  they  have  been  fer- 
tilised." '" 

I  have  now  shown,  on  the  authority  of  several  excellent 

observers,  in  the  case  of  plants  belonging  to  widely  different 

orders,  that  the  pollen  of  one  species  or  variety,  when  applied 

to  the  female  of  a  distinct  form,  occasionally  causes  the  coats 

of  the  seeds,  the  ovarium  or  fruit,  including  even  the  calyx 

and  upper  part  of  the  peduncle  of  the  apple,  and  the  axis 

of  the  ear  in  maize,  to  be  modified.     Sometimes  the  whole 

ovarium  or  all  the  seeds  are  thus  affected;  sometimes  only  a 

certain  number  of  the  seeds,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pea,  or  only 

a  part  of  the  ovarium,  as  with  the  striped  orange,  mottled 

grapes,  and  maize,  is  thus  affected.     It  must  not  be  supposed 

that  any  direct  or  immediate  effect   invariably  follows  the 

use  of  foreign  pollen :  this  is  far  from  being  the  case ;  nor 

is   it  known   on   what   conditions   the   result   depends.     Mr. 

Knight  ^*^  expressly  states  that  he  has  never  seen  the  fruit 

thus  affected,  though  he  crossed  thousands  of  apple  and  other 

fruit-trees.  t 

■  «t 

There  is  not  the  least  reason  to  believe  that  a  branch  w-hich        ? 
has  borne  seed  or  fruit  directly  modified  by  foreign  pollen  is         J 
itself  affected,  so  as  afterwards  to  produce  modified  buds;        i' 
such  an  occurrence,  from  the  temporary  connection  of  the 
flow^er  with  the  stem,  w^ould  be  hardly  possible.     Hence,  but 
very  few%  if  any,  of  the  cases  of  bud-variation  in  the  fruit  of 
trees,  given  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter  can  be  accounted 
for  by  the   action   of  foreign   pollen;  for   such   fruits   have 

146  '  Transact.   Hort.   Soc.,'   vol.  possible    to    clistinjrnish    between 

V.  pp.  65  and  68.     See,  also,  Prof.  the  direct  action  of  foreign  pollen 

Hildebrand,    with   a   coloured   fij?-  and  bud-variations. 
uve.    in    '  Bot.    Zeitunc:.'    May    1.5,  ^*'  T.  de  Clermont-Tonnerre.  in 

1868,  p.   327.     Pnvis  also  has  col-  '  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Linn,  de  Paris,' 

lected      ('  De     la      Degeneration,'  torn.  iii..  1825,  p.  164. 
1837,     p.     36)     severar  other     in-  i"  •  transact,    of    Hort.     Soc.,' 

stances;  but  it  is  not  in  all  cases  vol.  v.  p.  68. 


Chap.  XI.     MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MoTIIKIi-FoKM.    423 

commonly  been  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting.  It  is 
also  obvious  that  changes  of  colour  in  flowers,  which  neces- 
sarily supervene  long  before  they  are  ready  for  fertilisation, 
and  changes  in  the  shape  or  colour  of  leaves,  when  due  to  the 
appearance  of  modified  buds,  can  have  no  relation  to  the  ac- 
tion of  foreign  pollen. 

The  proofs  of  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  mother- 
plant  have  been  given  in  considerable  detail,  because  this 
action,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  is  of  the  higliest 
theoretical  importance,  and  because  it  is  in  itself  a  remark- 
able and  apparently  anomalous  circumstance.  That  it  is 
remarkable  under  a  physiological  point  of  view  is  clear,  for 
the  male  element  not  only  affects,  in  accordance  with  its 
proper  function,  the  germ,  but  at  the  same  time  various  parts 
of  the  mother-plant,  in  the  same  manner,  as  it  affects  the  same 
part  in  the  seminal  offspring  from  the  same  two  parents.  We 
thus  learn  that  an  ovule  is  not  indispensable  for  the  reception 
of  the  influences  of  the  male  element.  But  this  direct  action 
of  the  male  element  is  not  so  anomalous  as  it  at  first  appears, 
for  it  comes  into  play  in  the  ordinary  fertilisation  of  many 
flowers.  Gartner  gradually  increased  the  number  of  pollen 
grains  until  he  succeeded  in  fertilising  a  Malva,  and  has  '*■* 
proved  that  many  grains  are  first  expended  in  the  develop- 
ment, or,  as  he  expresses  it,  in  the  satiation,  of  the  pistil  and 
ovarium.  Again,  when  one  plant  is  fertilised  by  a  widely  dis- 
tinct species,  it  often  happens  that, the  ovarium  is  fully  and 
quickly  developed  without  any  seeds  being  formed;  or  the 
coats  of  the  seeds  are  formed  without  any  embryo  being 
developed  within.  Professor  Hildebrand,  also,  has  lately 
shown ''"  that,  in  the  normal  fertilisation  of  several  Orchidtc, 
the  action  of  the  plant's  own  pollen  is  necessary  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  ovarium;  and  that  this  development  takes 
place  not  long  before  the  pollen  tubes  have  reached  the  ovules, 
but  even  before  the  placentae  and  ovules  have  been  formed ;  so 
that  with  these  orchids  the  pollen  acts  directly  on  the  ova- 
rium. On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  overrate  the  etticacy 
of  pollen  in  the  case  of  hybridised  plants,  for  an  embryo  may 

i«  '  Beitriiee  znr  Kenntniss  der  pelte  Wirkniii.'  flos  rollons.'   '  Ho- 

Befnichtim*'''   1844    '^    :i4T-.T)l.  tnnisc-lie  Zi'itmij:.     N«>.  44  I't  M'»r, 

^^0  '  Die  Fnichth'iklun^'  dor  Or-  Oct.   yo,    1S(a5;   and   Aii.c   4.    l.su., 

chideen,   ein  Beweis  fiir  die  dop-  s.  1:40. 


424  C)N  THE  DIRECT  ACTION  OF  THE        Chap.  XI. 

be  formed  and  its  influence  excite  the  surrounding  tissues  of 
the  mother-plant,  and  then  perish  at  a  very  early  age  and  be 
thus  overlooked.  Again,  it  is  well  known  that  with  many 
plants  the  ovarium  may  be  fully  developed,  though  pollen 
be  wholly  excluded.  Lastly,  Mr.  Smith,  the  late  Curator  at 
Kew  (as  I  hear  through  Dr.  Hooker),  observed  with  an 
orchid,  the  Bonatea  speciosa,  the  singular  fact  that  the  de- 
velopment of  the  ovarium  could  be  effected  by  the  mechanical 
irritation  of  the  stigma.  JSTevertheless,  from  the  number  of 
the  pollen-grains  expended  "  in  the  satiation  of  the  ovarium 
and  pistil," — from  the  generality  of  the  formation  of  the 
ovarium  and  seed-coats  in  hybridised  plants  which  produce 
no  seeds, — and  from  Dr.  Hildebrand's  observations  on  orchids, 
we  may  admit  that  in  most  cases  the  swelling  of  the  ovarium, 
and  the  formation  of  the  seed-coats  are  at  least  aided,  if  not 
wholly  caused,  by  the  direct  action  of  the  pollen,  independ- 
ently of  the  intervention  of  the  fertilised  germ.  Therefore, 
in  the  previously  given  cases  we  have  only  to  believe  in  the 
further  power  of  pollen,  when  applied  to  a  distinct  species 
or  variety,  to  influence  the  shape,  size,  colour,  texture,  &c., 
of  certain  parts  of  the  mother-plant. 

Turning  now  to  the  animal  kingdom.  If  we  could  im- 
agine the  same  flower  to  yield  seeds  during  successive  years, 
then  it  would  not  be  very  surprising  that  a  flower  of  which 
the  ovarium  had  been  modified  by  foreign  pollen  should  next 
year  produce,  when  self-fertilised,  offspring  modified  by  the 
previous  male  influence.  Closely  analogous  cases  have  actu- 
ally occurred  with  animals.  In  the  case  often  quoted  from 
Lord  Morton,"^  a  nearly  purely-bred  Arabian  chestnut  mare 
bore  a  hybrid  to  a  quagga ;  she  was  subsequently  sent  to  Sir 
Gore  Ouseley,  and  produced  two  colts  by  a  black  Arabian 
horse.  These  colts  were  partially  dun-coloured,  and  were 
striped  on  the  legs  more  plainly  than  the  real  hybrid,  or  even 
than  the  quagga.  One  of  the  two  colts  had  its  neck  and 
some  other  parts  of  its  body  plainly  marked  with  stripes. 
Stripes  on  the  body,  not  to  mention  those  on  the  legs,  are  ex- 
tremely rare, — I  speak  after  having  long  attended  to  the  sub- 
ject,— with  horses  of  all  kinds  in  Europe,  and  are  almost  un- 

"1  '  Philos.  Transact.,'  1821,  p.  20. 


Chap.  XL    MALE  ELEMENT  ON  THE  MOTIIKH-FOliM.    405 


known  in  the  case  of  Arabians.  Pnit  what  makes  tlie  case 
still  more  striking  is  that  in  these  colts  the  hair  of  the  inane 
resembled  that  of  the  quagga,  being  short,  stilf,  ami  upright. 
Hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  (luagga  atTi-ctfil  the 
character  of  the  offspring  subsequently  begot  by  l\u-  bhick 
Arabian  horse.  Mr.  Jenner  Weir  informs  me  of  a  strictly 
parallel  case:  his  neighbour  Mr.  Lethbridgc,  of  T*>lacklK'ath, 
has  a  horse,  bred  by  Lord  Mostyn,  which  had  previously 
borne  a  foal  by  a  quagga.  This  horse  is  dun  with  a  dark 
stripe  down  the  back,  faint  stripes  on  the  forehead  bftwcoii 
the  eyes,  plain  stripes  on  the  inner  side  of  the  fore-legs  and 
rather  more  faint  ones  on  the  hind-legs,  with  no  shoulder- 
stripe.  The  mane  grows  much  lower  on  the  forehead  than 
in  the  horse,  but  not  so  low  as  in  the  quagga  or  zebra.  The 
hoofs  are  proportionally  longer  than  in  the  horse, — so  much 
so  that  the  farrier  who  first  shod  this  animal,  and  knew  iu){\\- 
ing  of  its  origin,  said,  "  Had  I  not  seen  I  was  shoeing  a  horse, 
1  should  have  thought  I  was  shoeing  a  donkey." 

With  respect  to  the  varieties  of  our  domesticated  animals, 
many  similar  and  w^ell-authenticated  facts  have  been  pub- 
lished,^^' and  others  have  been  communicated  to  me,  plainly 


152  Dr.  Alex.  Harvey  on  '  A  re- 
markable Effect  of  Cross-breed- 
ing,' 1851.  'On  the  Physiology  of 
Breeding,'  by  Mr.  Reginald  Orton, 
1855.  •  Intermarriage.'  l)y  Alex. 
Walker.  1837.  '  L'Heredite  Natu- 
relle,'  bv  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas,  torn, 
ii.  p.  58.  Mr.  W.  Sedgwick  in 
'  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chi- 
rurgical  Review.'  1863,  July,  p. 
183.  Bronn.  in  his  '  Geschichte 
der  Natur.  1843.  B.  ii.  s.  127,  has 
collected  several  cases  with  re- 
spect to  mares,  sows,  and  dogs. 
Mr.  W.  C.  L.  Martin  C  History 
of  the  Dog,'  1845,  p.  1U4)  says 
he  can  personally  vouch  for  the 
inflnence  of  the  male  parent  on 
.subsequent  litters  by  other  dogs. 
A  French  poet,  .Jacques  Savary, 
who  wrote  in  1005  on  dogs,  was 
aware  of  this  singular  fact.  Dr. 
Bowerbank  has  given  us  the  fol- 
lowing striking  case:— A  black, 
hairless  Barbary  bitch  was  tirst 
accidentally  impregnated  by  a 
mongrel  spaniel  with  long  brown 
hair,'  and  she  produced  five  pup- 
pies, three  of  wliifh  v»'ore  hairless 
and  two  covered  with  short  brown 
hair.     The  next  time  she  was  put 


to  a  black,  hairless  H;irbary  dog; 
*'  but  the  niiscliii'f  had  bci'ii  im- 
planted in  the  uiothrr,  and  again 
about  half  the  litter  Inokrd  like 
l)ure  Barbarys.  and  tiie  niln-r  luilf 
like  the  .s7(orMiairetl  pnigeny  of 
the  first  father."  I  h.ive  given  tti 
the  text  one  case  with  pigs;  :in 
e(iually  striking  one  has  ln't'U  re- 
cently'pubHshed  in  (JenuMny.  '  II- 
lust. '  Landwirth.  Zeitung."  iMkS, 
Nov.  17.  p.  143.  It  is  worth  no- 
tice that  farmers  in  S.  P.razll  (as 
I  hear  from  Frilz  .Miilh'n.  ami  at 
the  C.  of  (Jood  Ib>pe  (as  I  have 
heard  from  two  trustworthy  pt-r- 
sons)  are  convinci'il  liiat  niari'S 
which  have  once  borne  mules, 
wlien  sul»se(iuent ly  put  to  horst-s, 
are  extrenifly  liable  to  pro.hn-e 
colts,  striped'  like  a  mule.  I»r. 
Wilckens.  of  Pogarth.  glv.-s 
('  .lahrbuch  Landwirtlischaft.'  Ii.. 
18()'J,  p.  325)  a  striking  and  anal- 
agous  case.  A  Merino  r.nu.  h.iv- 
ing  two  small  hiiqiets  or  llnps  of 
skin  on  the  n<'«k.  was  In  the  win- 
ter of  ISCl  <;2  lint  t'>  sfvcnil  .M«'- 
rino  ewes,  ail  <»f  whom  bore  lambs 
with  sinular  Haps  on  their  m-.-ks. 
The  ram  was  killed  In  the  spring 


426  CONCLUSION  AND  SUMMARY  Chap.  XI. 

showing  the  influence  of  the  first  male  on  the  progeny  sub- 
sequently borne  by  the  mother  to  other  males.  It  will  suffice 
to  give  a  single  instance,  recorded  in  the  '  Philosophical 
Transactions,'  in  a  paper  following  that  by  Lord  Morton: 
Mr.  Giles  put  a  sow  of  Lord  Western's  black  and  white  Essex 
breed  to  a  wild  boar  of  a  deep  chestnut  colour ;  and  the  "  pigs 
produced  partook  in  appearance  of  both  boar  and  sow,  but 
in  some  the  chestnut  colour  of  the  boar  strongly  prevailed." 
After  the  boar  had  long  been  dead,  the  sow  was  put  to  a  boar 
of  her  own  black  and  white  breed — a  kind  which  is  well 
known  to  breed  very  true  and  never  to  show  any  chestnut 
colour, — yet  from  this  union  the  sow  produced  some  young 
pigs  which  were  plainly  marked  with  the  same  chestnut  tint 
as  in  the  first  litter.  Similar  cases  have  so  frequently  oc- 
curred, that  careful  breeders  avoid  putting  a  choice  female  of 
any  animal  to  an  inferior  male,  on  account  of  the  injury 
to  her  subsequent  progeny  which  may  be  expected  to  follow. 
Some  physiologists  have  attempted  to  account  for  these 
remarkable  results  from  a  previous  impregnation  by  the  im- 
agination of  the  mother  having  been  strongly  affected;  but 
it  will  hereafter  be  seen  that  there  are  very  slight  grounds 
for  any  such  belief.  Other  physiologists  attribute  the  result 
to  the  close  attachment  and  freely  intercommunicating  blood- 
vessels between  the  modified  embryo  and  mother.  But  the 
analogy  from  the  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  ovarium, 
seed-coats,  and  other  parts  of  the  mother-plant,  strongly  sup- 
ports the  belief  that  with  animals  the  male  element  acts  di- 
rectly on  the  female,  and  not  through  the  closed  embryo. 
With  birds  there  is  no  close  connection  between  the  embryo 
and  mother ;  yet  a  careful  observer.  Dr.  Chapuis,  states  ^^* 
that  with  pigeons  the  influences  of  a  first  male  sometimes 
makes  itself  perceived  in  the  succeeding  broods;  but  this 
statement  requires  confirmation. 

Conclusion   and   Summary    of    the    Chapter. — The   facts 
given  in  the  latter  half  of  this  chapter  are  well  worthy  of  con- 

of  1862.  find  snb«;pqi]ently  to  his  1807.  severnl  of  these  ewes  pro- 
death  the  ewes  were  put  to  other  dncerl  hambs  bearing  these  ap- 
Merino     rams,     and     in     1808     to  pendajres. 

Southdown    rams,    none  of   whom  i"  •  l^  Pigeon  Voyageur  Beige,' 

ever  have  neck  lappets:  neverthe-  1865,  p.  59, 
less,   even  as  long  afterwards  as 


4 


Chap.  XL  OF  THE  CIIAPTKIt.  427 

sideration,  as  they  show  us  in  how  many  extraordinary  modes 
the  union  of  one  form  witii  another  may  k-ad  to  the  modi- 
fication of  the  seminal  offspring  or  of  the  buds,  afterwards 
produced. 

There  is  nothing  surprising  in  the  ofFsi)ring  of  species  or 
varieties  crossed  in  the  ordinary  manner  being  modified;  but 
the  case  of  tw^o  plants  within  the  same  seed,  which  cohere 
and   differ   from   each   other,    is   curious.     \Vhen    a    l)ud    is 
formed  after  the  cellular  tissue  of  two  species  or  tw(j  va- 
rieties have  been  united,  and  it  partakes  of  the  characters  of 
both  parents,  the  case  is  wonderful.     But  1  need   not  here^ 
repeat  what  has  been  so  lately  said  on  this  subject.     We  have 
also  seen  that  in  the  case  of  plants  the  male  element  may  af- 
fect in  a  direct  manner  the  tissues  of  the  mother,  and  with 
animals  may  lead  to  the  modification  of  her  future  progeny. 
In  the  vegetable  kingdom  the  offspring  from  a  cross  between 
tw^o  species  or  varieties,  whether  effected  by  seminal  genera- 
tion or  by  grafting,  often  revert,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,. 
in  the  first  or  in  a  succeeding  generation,  to  the  two  parent- 
forms;  and  this  reversion  may  affect  the  whole  flower,  fruit, 
or  leaf-bud,  or  only  the  half  or  a  smaller  segment  of  a  single 
organ.     In  some  cases,  however,  such  segregation  of  character 
apparently  depends  on  an  incapacity  for  union  rather  than  on 
reversion,  for  the  flowers  or  fruit  which  are  first  produced  dis- 
play by  segments  the  characters  of  both  parents.     The  vari- 
ous facts  here  given  ought  to  be  well  considered  by  any  one- 
who  wishes  to  embrace  under  a  single  point  of  view  the  many 
modes  of  reproduction  by  gemmation,  division,  and  sexual 
union,  the  reparation  of  lost  parts,  variation,  inheritance,  re- 
version, and  other  such  phenomena.     Towards  the  t-lose  of 
the  second  volume  I  shall  attempt  to  connect  these  facts  to- 
gether by  the  hypothesis  of  pangenesis. 

In  the  early  half  of  the  present  chapter  T  have  given  a 
long  list  of  plants  in  which  through  bud-variation,  that  is,. 
independently  of  reproduction  by  seed,  the  fruit  has  sud- 
denly become  modified  in  size,  colour,  flavour,  hairiness 
shape,  and  time  of  maturity;  flowers  have  siinihirly  changed 
in  shape,  colour,  in  being  double,  and  greatly  m  the  cliMrMcter 
of  the  calyx;  young  branches  or  shoots  havo  chaiigt-d  in  col- 
our, in  bearing  spines  and  in  habit  of  growth,  as  m  climbing. 


428 


COXCLUSIOX  AND   SUMMARY 


Chap.  XL 


or  in  weeping;  leaves  have  changed  in  becoming  variegated, 
in  shape,  period  of  unfolding,  and  in  their  arrangement  on 
the  axis.  Buds  of  all  kinds,  whether  produced  on  ordinary- 
branches  or  on  subterranean  stems,  whether  simple  or  much 
modified  and  supplied  with  a  stock  of  nutriment,  as  in  tubers 
•and  bulbs,  are  all  liable  to  sudden  variations  of  the  same  gen- 
eral nature. 

In  the  list,  many  of  the  cases  are  certainly  due  to  rever- 
sion to  characters  not  acquired  from  a  cross,  but  which  were 
formerly  present  and  have  since  been  lost  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time ; — as  when  a  bud  on  a  variegated  plant  produces 
plain  leaves,  or  when  the  variously  coloured  flowers  of  the 
Chrysanthemum  revert  to  the  aboriginal  yellow  tint.  Many 
other  cases  included  in  the  list  are  probably  due  to  the  plants 
being  of  crossed  parentage,  and  to  the  buds  reverting  either 
completely  or  by  segments  to  one  of  the  two  parent-forms.'"* 

We  may  suspect  that  the  strong  tendency  in  the  Chrysan- 
themum to  produce  by  bud-variation  differently-coloured 
flowers,  results  from  the  varieties  having  been  at  some  time 
intentionally  or  accidentally  crossed;  and  this  is  certainly 
the  case  with  some  kinds  of  Pelargonium.  So  it  may  be  to  a 
large  extent  with  the  bud-varieties  of  the  Dahlia,  and  w^ith 
the  "  broken  colours "  of  Tulips.  When,  however,  a  plant 
reverts  by  bud-variation  to  its  two  parent  forms,  or  to  one  of 
them,  it  sometimes  does  not  revert  perfectly,  but  assumes  a 
somewhat  new  character, — of  which  fact,  instances  have  been 
^iven,  and  Carriere  gives  ^"^  another  in  the  cherry. 

Many  cases  of  bud-variation,  however,  cannot  be  at- 
tributed to  reversion,  but  to  so-called  spontaneous  variability, 
as  is  so  common  with  cultivated  plants  raised  from  seed.     As 


<?•■ 


^^*  It  may  be  worth  while  to 
■call  attention  to  the  several 
means  by  which  flowers  and 
:fruit  become  striped  or  mot- 
tled. Firstly,  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  pollen  of  another  variety 
or  species,  as  in  the  cases  given 
of  oranges  and  maize.  Secondly, 
in  crosses  of  the  first  generation, 
when  the  colours  of  the  two  par- 
ents do  not  readily  unite,  as  with 
Mirabilis  and  Dianthus.  Thirdly, 
in  crossed  plants  of  a  subsequent 
generation  by  reversion,  through 
•either  bud  or  seminal  generation. 


Fourthly,  by  reversion  to  a  char- 
acter not  originally  gained  by  a 
cross,  but  which  had  long  been 
lost,  as  with  white-flowered  va- 
rieties, which  we  shall  hereafter 
see  often  become  striped  with 
some  other  colour.  Lastly,  there 
are  cases,  as  when  peaches  are 
produced  with  a  half  or  quarter 
of  the  fruit  like  a  nectarine,  in 
which  the  change  is  apparently 
due  to  mere  variation,  through 
either  bud  or  seminal  generation. 
155  '  Production  des  Varietes,' 
p.  37. 


Chap.  XI.  OF  THE  ClIAPTKR. 


421> 


a  single  variety  of  the  Chrysanthemum  has  produced  by  buds 
six  other  varieties,  and  as  one  variety  of  the  f<ooseb«'rry  iias 
borne  at  the  same  time  four  distinct  kinds  of  fruit/ it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  believe  that  all  these  variations  are  due  to 
reversion.  We  can  hardly  believe,  as  remarkud  in  a  previous 
chapter,  that  all  the  many  peaches  which  liave  yi«'ldcd  nt-c- 
tarine-buds  are  of  crossed  parentage.  Lastly,  in  surli  cases 
as  that  of  the  moss-rose,  with  its  peculiar  calyx,  and  of  the 
rose  which  bears  opposite  leaves,  in  that  of  the  Imanto- 
phyllum,  &c.,  there  is  no  known  natural  species  or  variety 
from  which  the  characters  in  question  could  have  been  de- 
rived by  a  cross.  We  must  attribute  all  such  cases  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  absolutely  new  characters  in  the  buds.  The  va- 
rieties which  have  thus  arisen  cannot  be  distinguished  by  any 
external  character  from  seedlings;  this  is  notoriously  the 
case  with  the  varieties  of  the  Rose,  Azalea,  and  many  other 
plants.  It  deserves  notice  that  all  the  plants  whieli  have 
yielded  bud-variations  have  likewise  varied  greatly  by  seed. 

The  plants  which  have  varied  by  buds  belong  to  so  many 
orders  that  we  may  infer  that  almost  every  plant  would  be 
liable  to  variation,  if  placed  under  the  proper  exciting  con- 
ditions. These  conditions,  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  mainly 
depend  on  long-continued  and  high  cultivation;  for  almost 
all  the  plants  in  the  foregoing  list  are  perennials,  and  have 
been  largely  propagated  in  many  soils,  under  diiferent  cli- 
mates, by  cuttings,  offsets,  bulbs,  tubers,  and  especially  by  buil- 
ding or  grafting.  The  instances  of  annuals  varying  by  buds 
or  producing  on  the  same  plant  differently  coloured  flowers, 
are  comparatively  rare:  ITopkirk ''''  has  seen  this  with  Con- 
volvulus tricolor;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  with  the  Balsam 
and  annual  Delphinium.  According  to  Sir  II.  Schomburgk. 
plants  from  the  warmer  temperate  regions,  when  cultivatetl 
under  the  hot  climate  of  St.  Domingo,  are  eminently  liable  to 
bud-variation.  I  am  informed  by  ]\[r.  Sedgwick  that  nit^ss- 
roses  wdiich  have  often  been  taken  to  Calcutta  always  there 
lose  their  mossiness;  but  change  of  climate  is  by  no  means  a 
necessary  contingent,  as  we  see  with  the  gooseberry,  currant, 
and  in  many  other  cases.  Plants  living  under  their  natural 
conditions  are  very  rarely  subject  to  bud-variation.     Vario- 

i5«  '  Flora  Auomtila,'  p.  1G4. 


430  CONCLUSION  AND   SUMMARY  Chap.  XI. 

gated  leaves  have,  however,  been  observed  under  such  circum- 
stances; and  I  have  given  an  instance  of  variation  by  buds 
on  an  ash-tree  planted  in  ornamental  grounds,  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  such  a  tree  can  be  considered  as  living  under 
strictly  natural  conditions.  Gartner  has  seen  white  and 
dark-red  flowers  produced  from  the  same  root  of  the  wild 
Achillea  millefolium;  and  Professor  Caspary  has  seen  a  com- 
pletely wild  Viola  lutea  bearing  flowers  of  two  different  col- 

dl57 
Sizes. 

As  wild  plants  are  so  rarely  liable  to  bud-variation,  whilst 
highly  cultivated  plants  long  propagated  by  artificial  means 
have  yielded  many  varieties  by  this  form  of  reproduction,  we 
are  led  through  a  series  such  as  the  following, — namely,  all 
the  eyes  in  the  same  tuber  of  the  potato  varying  in  the  same 
manner, — all  the  fruit  on  a  purple  plum-tree  suddenly  be- 
coming yellow, — all  the  fruit  on  a  double-flowered  almond 
suddenly  becoming  peach-like, — all  the  buds  on  grafted  trees 
being  in  a  very  slight  degree  affected  by  the  stock  on  which 
they  have  been  worked, — all  the  flowers  on  a  transplanted 
heartsease  changing  for  a  time  in  colour,  size,  and  shape,-^we 
are  led  by  such  a  series  to  look  at  every  case  of  bud-variation 
as  the  direct  result  of  the  conditions  of  life  to  w^hich  the 
plant  has  been  exposed.  On  the  other  hand,  plants  of  the 
same  variety  may  be  cultivated  in  two  adjoining  beds,  appar- 
ently under  exactly  the  same  conditions,  and  those  in  the 
one  bed,  as  Carriere  insists.^'"'  will  produce  many  bud-va- 
riations, and  those  in  the  other  not  a  single  one.  Again,  if 
we  look  to  such  cases  as  that  of  a  peach-tree  w^hich,  after  hav- 
ing been  cultivated  by  tens  of  thousands  during  many  years 
in  many  countries,  and  after  having  annually  produced  mil- 
lions of  buds,  all  of  which  have  apparently  been  exposed  to 
precisely  the  same  conditions,  yet  at  last  suddenly  produces  a 
single  bud  with  its  whole  character  greatly  transformed,  we 
are  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  transformation  stands  in 
no  direct  relation  to  the  conditions  of  life. 

We  have  seen  that  varieties  produced  from  seeds  and  from 
buds  resemble  each  other  so  closely  in  general  appearance 

"^  '  Sehriften      der      physiseh-  '■"'*  '  Production    des    Varietes,' 

okon.      Gesell.      zu      Konicrsberg,'        pp.  58,  70. 
Band  vi..  Feb.  3,  1865,  s.  4. 


Chap.  XI.  OP  THE  CHAPTER.  431 

that  they  cannot  be  distinguished.  Just  as  certain  species 
and  groups  of  species,  when  propagated  by  seed,  are  more 
variable  than  other  species  or  genera,  so  it  is  in  the  case  of 
certain  bud-varieties.  Thus,  the  Queen  of  Enghind  Clirys- 
anthemum  has  produced  by  this  hitler  process  no  k'ss  than 
six,  and  Rollisson's  Unique  Pehirgoniuni  four  distinct  va- 
rieties; moss-roses  have  also  produced  several  otlier  moss- 
roses.  The  Rosacese  have  varied  by  buds  more  than  any 
other  group  of  plants;  but  this  may  be  in  larg'»  i)art  due  to 
so  many  members  having  been  long  cultivated;  but  within 
this  same  group,  the  peach  has  often  varied  by  buds,  whilst 
the  apple  and  pear,  both  grafted  trees  extensively  cultivated, 
have  afforded,  as  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  extremely  few  in- 
stances of  bud-variation. 

The  law  of  analogous  variation  holds  good  with  varieties 
produced  by  buds,  as  with  those  produced  from  seed :  more 
than  one  kind  of  rose  has  sported  into  a  moss-rose;  more 
than  one  kind  of  camellia  has  assumed  an  hexagonal  form; 
and  at  least  seven  or  eight  varieties  of  the  peach  have  pro- 
duced nectarines. 

The  laws  of  inheritance  seem  to  be  nearly  the  same  with 
seminal  and  bud-varieties.  We  know  how  commonly  re- 
version comes  into  play  with  both,  and  it  may  affect  the  whole, 
or  only  segments  of  a  leaf,  flower,  or  fruit.  When  the  ten- 
dency to  reversion  affects  many  buds  on  the  same  tree,  it  be- 
comes covered  with  different  kinds  of  leaves,  flowers,  or  fruit ; 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  such  fluctuating  varieties 
have  generally  arisen  from  seed.  It  is  well  known  that,  out 
of  a  number  of  seedling  varieties,  some  transmit  their  charac- 
ter much  more  truly  by  seed  than  others;  so  with  l>ud-va- 
rieties,  some  retain  their  character  by  successive  buds  more 
truly  than  others;  of  which  instances  have  been  given  with 
two  kinds  of  variegated  Euonymus  and  with  certain  kinds  t»f 
tulips  and  pelargonimns.  Notwithstanding  the  sudden  pro- 
duction of  bud-varieties,  the  characters  thus  acquire<l  are 
sometimes  capable  of  transmission  by  seminal  roproductic^n : 
Mr.  Rivers  has  found  that  moss-roses  genfM-ally  reproduce 
themselves  by  seed;  and  the  mossy  character  has  been  trans- 
ferred by  crossing  from  one  species  of  rose  to  another.  The 
Boston  nectarine,  which  appeared  as  a  bud-variation,  produced 


432  CONCLUSION  AND  SUMMARY  Chap.  XL 

by  seed  a  closely  allied  nectarine.  On  the  other  hand,  seedlings 
from  some  bud-variations  have  proved  variable  to  an  extreme 
degree/''"*  We  have  also  heard,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Salter, 
that  seeds  taken  from  a  branch  with  leaves  variegated  through 
bud-variation,  transmit  this  character  very  feebly;  whilst 
many  plants,  which  were  variegated  as  seedlings,  transmit 
variegation  to  a  large  proportion  of  their  progeny. 

Although  I  have  been  able  to  collect  a  good  many  cases  of 
bud-variation,  as  shown  in  the  previous  lists,  and  might  prob- 
ably, by  searching  foreign  horticultural  works,  have  col- 
lected very  many  more  cases,  yet  their  total  number  is  as 
nothing  in  comparison  with  that  of  seminal  varieties.  With 
seedlings  raised  from  the  more  variable  cultivated  plants,  the 
variations  are  almost  infinitely  numerous,  but  their  differ- 
ences are  generally  slight:  only  at  long  intervals  of  time  a 
strongly  marked  modification  appears.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  a  singular  and  inexplicable  fact  that,  when  plants  vary  by 
buds,  the  variations,  though  they  occur  with  comparative 
rarity,  are  often,  or  even  generally,  strongly  pronounced.  It 
struck  me  that  this  might  perhaps  be  a  delusion,  and  that 
slight  changes  often  occurred  in  buds,  but  were  overlooked  or 
not  recorded  from  being  of  no  value.  Accordingly,  I  applied 
to  two  great  authorities  on  this  subject,  namely,  to  Mr.  Elvers  ^ 
with  respect  to  fruit-trees,  and  to  Mr.  Salter  with  respect  to 
flowers.  Mr.  Elvers  is  doubtful,  but  does  not  remember  hav- 
ing noticed  very  slight  variations  in  fruit-buds.  Mr.  Salter 
informs  me  that  with  flowers  such  do  occur,  but  if  propagated, 
they  generally  lose  their  new  character  in  the  following  year; 
yet  he  concurs  with  me  that  bud-variations  usually  at  once 
assume  a  decided  and  permanent  character.  We  can  hardly 
doubt  that  this  is  the  rule,  when  we  reflect  on  such  cases  as 
that  of  the  peach,  which  has  been  so  carefully  observed,  and 
of  which  such  trifling  seminal  varieties  have  been  propagated, 
yet  this  tree  has  repeatedly  produced  by  bud-variation  necta- 
rines, and  only  twice  (as  far  as  I  can  learn)  any  other  va- 
riety, namely,  the  Early  and  Late  Grosse  Mignonne  peaches; 
and  these  differ  from  the  parent-tree  in  hardly  any  character 
except  the  period  of  maturity. 

To  my  surprise,  I  hear  from  Mr.   Salter  that  he  brings 

"^  Carriere,   '  Production  des  Varietes,'  p.  39, 


Chap.  XI.  OF  THE  CHAPTER.  43.'? 

the  principle  of  selection  to  bear  on  variegated  plants  propa- 
gated by  buds,  and  has  thus  greatly  iniprcjved  and  fixed  sev- 
eral varieties.  He  informs  me  that  at  first  a  branch  often 
produces  variegated  leaves  on  one  side  alone,  and  tliat  the 
leaves  are  marked  only  with  an  irreguhir  edging  or  with  a  few 
lines  of  white  and  yellow.  To  improve  and  fix  such  varieties, 
he  finds  it  necessary  to  encourage  the  buds  at  the  bases  of  the 
most  distinctly  marked  leaves,  and  to  propagate  from  tliein 
alone.  By  following  with  perseverance  this  phm  during 
three  or  four  successive  seasons,  a  distinct  and  fixed  variety 
can  generally  be  secured. 

Finally,  the  facts  given  in  this  chapter  prove  in  how  close- 
and  remarkable  a  manner  the  germ  of  a  fertilised  seed  and 
the  small  cellular  mass  forming  a  bud,  resemble  each  other  in 
all  their  functions — in  their  power  of  inheritance  with  occa- 
sional reversion, — and  in  their  capacity  for  variation  of  the 
same  general  nature,  in  obedience  to  the  same  laws.     This  re- 
semblance, or  rather  identity  of  character,  is  shown  in  the 
most  striking  manner  by  the  fact  that  the  cellular  tissue 
of  one  species  or  variety,  when  budded  or  grafted  on  another, 
may  give  rise  to  a  bud  having  an  intermediate  character. 
We  have  seen  that  variability  does  not  depend  on  sexual  gen- 
eration, though  much  more  frequently  its  concomitant  than 
of  bud  reproduction.     We  have  seen  that  bud-variability  ia 
not  solely  dependent  on  reversion  or  atavism  to  long-lost  char- 
acters, or  to  those  formerly  acquired  from  a  cross,  but  ap- 
pears often  to  be  spontaneous.     But  when  we  ask  ourselves 
what  is  the  cause  of  any  particular  bud-variation,  we  are  lost 
in  doubt,  being  driven  in  some  cases  to  look  to  the  direct  ac- 
tion of  the  external  conditions  of  life  as  sufficient,  and  in 
other  cases   to   feel   a  profound  conviction  that  these  have 
played  a  quite  subordinate  part,  of  not  more  importance  than 
the  nature  of  the  spark  which  ignites  a  mass  of  combustible 
matter. 


434  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

INHERITANCE. 

Wonderful  nature  of  inheritance — Pedigrees  of  our  domesticated  animals 
— Inheritance  not  due  to  chance — Trifling  characters  inherited — Dis- 
eases inherited— Peculiarities  in  the  eye  inherited — Diseases  in  the 
horse— Longevity  and  vigour— Asymmetrical  deviations  of  structure 
— Polydactyiism  and  regrowth  of  supernumerary  digits  after  amputa- 
tion— Cases  of  several  children  similarly  afiected  from  non-afl'ected 
parents — Weak  and  fluctuating  inheritance  :  in  weeping  trees,  in 
dwarfness,  colour  of  fruit  and  flowers — Colour  of  horses— ^Son-inherit- 
ance in  certain  cases — Inheritance  of  structure  and  habits  overborne 
by  hostile  conditions  of  life,  by  incessantly  recurring  variability,  and 
by  reversion — Conclusion. 

The  subject  of  inheritance  is  an  immense  one,  and  has 
been  treated  by  many  authors.  One  work  alone,  '  De  I'Here- 
dite  Xaturelle,'  by  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas,  runs  to  the  length  of 
1562  pages.  We  must  confine  ourselves  to  certain  points 
which  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  general  subject  of 
Tariation,  both  with  domestic  and  natural  productions.  It  is 
obvious  that  a  variation  which  is  not  inherited  throws  no 
light  on  the  derivation  of  species,  nor  is  it  of  any  service  to 
man,  except  in  the  case  of  perennial  plants,  which  can  be 
propagated  by  buds. 

If  animals  and  plants  had  never  been  domesticated,  and 
wild  ones  alone  had  been  observed,  we  should  probably  never 
Iiave  heard  the  saying,  that  "  like  begets  like."  The  propo- 
sition would  have  been  as  self-evident  as  that  all  the  buds  on 
the  same  tree  are  alike,  though  neither  proposition  is  strictly 
true.  For,  as  has  often  been  remarked,  probably  no  two 
individuals  are  identically  the  same.  All  wild  animals  recog- 
nise each  other,  which  shows  that  there  is  some  difference 
between  them;  and  when  the  eye  is  well  practised,  the  shep- 
herd knows  each  sheep,  and  man  can  distinguish  a  fellow- 
man  out  of  millions  on  millions  of  other  men.  Some  authors 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  the  production  of  slight 
differences  is  as  much  a  necessary  function  of  the  powers  of 
generation  as  the  production  of  offspring  like  their  parents. 


i 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE. 


43.-; 


This  view,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter,  is  not  theoreti- 
cally probable,  though  practically  it  holds  j,-«.o(l.  'I'lie  suyinj,' 
that  "like  begets  like"  has,  in  fact,  arisen  fn.ni  tlie  iK'rfect 
confidence  felt  by  breeders,  that  a  superi(^r  or  infcric.r  animal 
will  generally  reproduce  its  kind;  but  this  very  superiority 
or  inferiority  shows  that  the  individual  in  (picstion  has 
departed  slightly  from  its  type. 

The  whole  subject  of  inheritance  is  wonderful.  When  a 
new  character  arises,  whatever  its  nature  may  be,  it  generally 
tends  to  be  inherited,  at  least  in  a  temporary  and  sometimes 
in  a  most  persistent  manner.  What  can  be  more  wonderful 
than  that  some  trifling  peculiarity,  not  primordially  attached 
to  the  species,  should  be  transmitted  through  the  male  or 
female  sexual  cells,  which  are  so  minute  as  nut  to  be  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  and  afterwards  through  the  incessant 
changes  of  a  long  course  of  development,  undergone  either  in 
the  womb  or  in  the  egg,  and  ultimately  appear  in  the  oil- 
spring  when  mature,  or  even  when  quite  old,  as  in  the  ca.-c 
of  certain  diseases?  Or  again,  what  can  be  more  wonderful 
than  the  well-ascertained  fact  that  the  minute  ovule  of 
a  good  milking  cow  will  produce  a  male,  from  whom  a  cell, 
in  union  with  an  ovule,  will  produce  a  female,  and  she,  when 
mature,  will  have  large  mammary  glands,  yielding  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  milk,  and  even  milk  of  a  particular  quality^ 
ISTevertheless,  the  real  subject  of  surprise  is,  as  Sir  II.  Holland 
has  well  remarked,^  not  that  a  character  should  be  inherited, 
but  that  any  should  ever  fail  to  be  inherited.  In  a  future 
chapter,  devoted  to  an  hypothesis  which  I  have  termed  pan- 
genesis, an  attempt  will  be  made  to  show  the  means  by  which 
characters  of  all  kinds  are  transmitted  from  general it»n  to 
generation. 

Some  writers,''  who  have  not  attended  to  natural  history, 
have  attempted  to  show  that  the  force  of  inheritance  has  bt-en 
much  exaggerated.  The  breeders  of  animals  would  smile  at 
such  simplicity;  and  if  they  condescended  to  make  any 
answer,  might  ask  what  would  be  the  chance  of  winning  a 

1  '  Medical    Notes    and    Roflec-  of  statistics.    .sVr  also  Mr.  Howrn. 

tions,'  3rd  edit.,  1855,  p.  207.  Professor  of  Moral  IMillosopliy    iii 

-Mr.    Buckle,    in    his    'History  '  Proc.    American    Ai-ad.    •■'    ^' i- 

of  Civilisation,'   expresses  doubts  euces,'  vol.  v.  p.  10-,. 
on  the  subject,  owing  to  the  want 
29 


436  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

prize  if  two  inferior  animals  were  paired  together?  They 
might  ask  whether  the  half-wild  Arabs  were  led  by  theoreti- 
cal notions  to  keep  pedigrees  of  their  horses?  Why  have 
pedigrees  been  scrupulously  kept  and  published  of  the  Short- 
horned  cattle,  and  more  recently  of  the  Hereford  breed?  Is 
it  an  illusion  that  these  recently  improved  animals  safely 
transmit  their  excellent  qualities  even  when  crossed  with 
other  breeds?  Have  the  Shorthorns,  without  good  reason, 
been  purchased  at  immense  prices  and  exported  to  almost 
every  quarter  of  the  globe,  a  thousand  guineas  having  been 
given  for  a  bull?  With  greyhounds  pedigrees  have  likewise 
been  kept,  and  the  names  of  such  dogs,  as  Snowball,  Major, 
(fee,  are  as  well  known  to  coursers  as  those  of  Eclipse  and 
Herod  on  the  turf.  Even  with  the  Gamecock,  pedigrees  of 
famous  strains  were  formerly  kept,  and  extended  back  for  a 
century.  With  pigs,  the  Yorkshire  and  Cumberland  breeders 
"  preserve  and  print  pedigrees ; "  and  to  show  how  such 
highly-bred  animals  are  valued,  I  may  mention  that  Mr. 
Brown,  who  won  all  the  first  prizes  for  small  breeds  at  Bir- 
mingham in  1850,  sold  a  young  sow  and  boar  of  his  breed  to 
Lord  Ducie  for  43  guineas ;  the  sow  alone  was  afterwards  sold 
to  the  Rev.  E.  Thursby  for  65  guineas ;  who  writes,  "  She 
paid  me  very  well,  having  sold  her  produce  for  300?.,  and  hav- 
ing now  four  breeding  sows  from  her."  ■*  Hard  cash  paid 
down,  over  and  over  again,  is  an  excellent  test  of  inherited 
superiority.  In  fact,  the  whole  art  of  breeding,  from  which 
e.uch  great  results  have  been  attained  during  the  present  cen- 
tury, depends  on  the  inheritance  of  each  small  detail  of 
structure.  But  inheritance  is  not  certain ;  for  if  it  were,  the 
breeder's  art*  would  be  reduced  to  a  certainty,  and  there 
would  be  little  scope  left  for  that  wonderful  skill  and  perse- 
verance shown  by  the  men  who  have  left  an  enduring  monu- 
ment of  their  success  in  the  present  state  of  our  domesti- 
cated animals. 

It  is  hardly  possible,  within  a  moderate  compass,  to  im- 
press on  the  mind  of  those  who  have  not  attended  to  the 

'  For    greyhounds,     see     Low's  p.  123.     For  pigs,  see  Mr.  Sidney's 

'  Domestic   Animals   of   the    Brit-  edit,    of    '  Youatt,    on    the    Pig,' 

ish    Islands,'    1845,    p.    721.      For  1860.  pp.  11,  22. 
Game-fowls,     see     '  The     Poultry  *  '  The    Stud    Farm,'    by    Cecil, 

Book,'    by   Mr.    Tegetmeier,    18G6,  p.  39. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  437 

subject,  the  full  conviction  of  the  force  of  inheritance  which 
is  slowly  acquired  by  rearing  animals,  by  studying  the  many 
treatises  which  have  been  published  on  the  various  domestic 
animals,  and  by  conversing  with  breeders.     I  will  select  a  few 
facts  of  the  kind,  which,  as  far  as  I  can  judgf,  have  most 
influenced  my  own  mind.     With  man  and  the  domestic  ani- 
mals, certain  peculiarities  have  appeared  in  an  individual,  at 
rare  intervals,  or  only  once  or  twice  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  but  have  reappeared  in  several  of  the  children  and 
grandchildren.     Thus  Lambert,  "  the  porcupine-man,"  whose 
skin  was  thickly  covered  wdth  warty  projections  which  wrre 
periodically  moulted,  had  all  his  six  children  and  two  grand- 
sons similarly  affected.      The  face  and  body  being  covered 
with  long  hair,  accompanied  by  deficient  teeth  (to  which  1 
shall  hereafter  refer),  occurred  in  three  successive  generations 
in  a  Siamese  family ;  but  this  case  is  not  unique,  as  a  wonuui  * 
with  a  completely  hairy  face,  who  was  exhibited  in  London  in 
1663,  and  another  instance  has  recently  occurred.     Colonel 
Hallam  ^  has  described  a  race  of  two-legged  pigs,  "  the  hinder 
extremities  being  entirely  wanting ;  "  and  this  deficiency  was 
transmitted   through   three  generations.     In   fact,   all   ract-s 
presenting  any  remarkable  peculiarity,  such  as  solid-hoofed 
swine,  Mauchamp  sheep,  niata  cattle,  &c.,  are  instances  of 
the  long-continued  inheritance  of  rare  deviations  of  structure. 
When  we  reflect  that  certain  extraordinary  peculiarities 
have  thus  appeared  in  a  single  individual  out  of  many  mil- 
lions, all  exposed  in  the  same  country  to  the  same  general 
conditions  of  life,  and,  again,  that  the  same  extraordinary 
peculiarity   has    sometimes    appeared    in    individuals    living 
under  widely  different  conditions  of  life,  we  are  driven  to 
conclude  that  such  peculiarities  are  not  directly  due  to  the 
action  of  the  surrounding  conditions,  but  to  unknown  laws 
acting  on  the  organisation  or  constitution  of  the  individual; 
—that  their  production  stands  in  hardly  closer  relation  to  the 

^  '  Philosophical   Transactions,'  «  Barbara    Van    I\''^k-    fl'^'j;;'^- 

17^ii    n    'y'^      T  hnvp  seen  onlv  sec-  as    I    am    Informed    li\     tlie    u.'\. 

Jnf-hJnd'-accountI  'of"  ?he'  .two  W.   D.   Fox    h>  ^^l-J'X  ^  *;••''■ 

grandsons.      Mr.    Sedjjwick.    in    a  lerv  ..of     Hare     1  ortrnlts.      IMO. 

paper  to  which   I   shall  hereafter  vol.  u.  y^,^„    o,,„     m»3    „ 

often  refer,  states  that  four  gen-  '     Proc.   Zoolog.    Soc.   1S.33.    p. 

erations     were    affected,    and    in  lb. 
each  the  males  alone. 


b 


438  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 


I 


« 


conditions  of  life  than  does  life  itself.  If  this  be  so,  and  the 
occurrence  of  the  same  unusual  character  in  the  child  and 
parent  cannot  be  attributed  to  both  having  been  exposed  to 
the  same  unusual  conditions,  then  the  following  problem  is 
worth  consideration,  as  showing  that  'the  result  cannot  be 
due,  as  some  authors  have  supposed,  to  mere  coincidence,  but 
must  be  consequent  on  the  members  of  the  same  family  in- 
heriting something  in  common  in  their  constitution.  Let  it 
be  assumed  that,  in  a  large  population,  a  particular  affec- 
tion occurs  on  an  average  in  one  out  of  a  million,  so  that 
the  a  priori  chance  that  an  individual  taken  at  random  will 
be  so  affected  is  only  one  in  a  million.  Let  the  population 
consist  of  sixty  millions,  composed,  we  will  assume,  of  ten 
millions  families,  each  containing  six  members.  On  these 
data.  Professor  Stokes  has  calculated  for  me  that  the  odds 
T\dll  be  no  less  than  8333  millions  to  1  that  in  the  ten  million 
families  there  will  not  be  even  a  single  family  in  which  one  % 
parent  and  two  children  will  be  affected  by  the  peculiarity  in  \ 
•question.  But  numerous  instances  could  be  given,  in  which  ?.) 
•several  children  have  been  affected  by  the  same  rare  peculi- 
arity with  one  of  their  parents;  and  in  this  case,  more  :^ 
•especially  if  the  grandchildren  be  included  in  the  calculation, 
the  odds  against  mere  coincidence  become  something  prodi- 
gious, almost  beyond  enumeration. 

In  some  respects  the  evidence  of  inheritance  is  more 
striking  w4ien  we  consider  the  reappearance  of  trifling  idccu-  / 
liarities.  Dr.  Hodgkin  formerly  told  me  of  an  English  fam-  ■^ 
ily  in  Avhich,  for  many  generations,  some  members  had  a  ' 
single  lock  differently  coloured  from  the  rest  of  the  hair.  I 
knew  an  Irish  gentleman,  who,  on  the  right  side  of  his  head, 
.had  a  small  white  lock  in  the  midst  of  his  dark  hair:  he  as- 
sured me  that  his  grandmother  had  a  similar  lock  on  the 
:same  side,  and  his  mother  on  the  opposite  side.  But  it  is  su- 
■perfluous  to  give  instances;  every  shade  of  expression,  which 
may  often  be  seen  alike  in  parents  and  children,  tells  the 
same  story.  On  what  a  curious  combination  of  corporeal 
structure,  mental  character,  and  training,  handwriting  de- 
pends! yet  every  one  must  have  noted  the  occasional  close 
similarity  of  the  handwritin.;  in  father  and  son,  although  the 
father  had  not  taught  his  son.     A  great  collector  of  auto- 


Chap.  XII.  IXIIERITAXCE.  4;;<.< 

graphs  assured  me  that  in  his  collection  tliere  were  soveral  sig- 
natures of  father  and  son  hardly  distinguishable  except  by 
their  dates.     Hofacker,  in  Germany,  remarks  on  tiie  iiilierit- 
ance   of   handwriting;  and   it   has   even    been   asserte«l    tlmt 
English  boys  when  taught  to  write  in  France  naturally  cliiiK 
to  their  English  manner  of  writing;  but  iuv  so  extraordinary 
a  statement  more  evidence  is  requisite."    (iait,  gesturo.  vt»ice, 
and  general  bearingarc  all  inherited, as  the  illustrious  Hunter 
and  Sir  A.  Carlisle  have  insisted."     My  father  connnunicated 
to  me  some  striking  instances,  in  one  of  which  a  man  di«'d  dur- 
ing the  early  infancy  of  his  son,  and  my  father,  who  diti  not 
see  this  son  until  grown  up  and  out  of  health,  declared  that  it 
seemed  to  him  as  if  his  old  friend  had  risen  from  the  grave, 
with  all  his  highly  peculiar  habits  and  manners.     Peculiar 
manners  pass  into  tricks,  and  several  instances  could  be  given 
of  their   inheritance;  as   in   the  case,   often   quote<l.   of   tlie 
father  who  generally  slept  on  his  back,  with  his  ri}:ht   leg 
crossed  over  the  left,  and  whose  daughter,  whilst  an  infant  in 
the  cradle,  followed  exactly  the  same  habit,  tht>ugh  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  cure  her.^**     I  will  give  one  instance  which 
has  fallen  under  my  own  observation,  and  which  is  curious 
from  being  a  trick  associated  with  a  peculiar  state  of  mind, 
namely,  pleasurable  emotion.     A  boy  had  the  singular  habit, 
when  pleased,  of  rapidly  moving  his  fingers  parallel  to  each 
other,  and,  when  much  excited,  of  raising  both  hands,  with 
the  fingers  still  moving,  to  the  sides  of  his  face  on  a  level 
with  the  eyes;  when  this  boy  was   almost  an  old   man,  he 
could  still  hardly  resist  this  trick  when  much  [)lease(l.  but 
from  its  absurdity  concealed  it.     He  had  eight  children.     Of 
these,  a  girl,  when  pleased,  at  the  age  of  four  and  a  half  years, 
moved  her  fingers  in  exactly  the  same  way,  and  what  is  still 
odder,  when  much  excited,  she  raised  both  her  hands,  with  her 
fingers  still  moving,  to  the  sides  of  her  face,  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  her  father  had  done,  and  sometimes  even 
still  continued  to  do  so  when  alone.     I  never  heanl  .»f  any 

sHofackor,    '  Teber  die   Ei^'on-  Sir  A.  Carlisle.   '  I'hll.  Transact..' 

<!p1ti ftpii  '    iR-o      182.S,   s.   34.      With  1S14.   p.  U4. 

?e?i;St  n.  FnincS^onort  l,y  Pari-  '".^"y'"   'I''  ^''f >';^l;""7-  ,,,'ve 

set^in  '  Comptes  Kenans,'  1847.  p.  %^:;rT'\^\n-:^:^^^^^<'^    «"    -? 

«■  Hunter,     as    qnote.l     in    Ilnr-  bo.,k   m,    *  The   Kxpresslou  of   the 

lan's    '  Med.    Researches,'    p.    TkM.  Eniolions. 


440 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII. 


one,  excepting  this  one  man  and  his  little  daughter,  who  had 
this  strange  habit;  and  certainly  imitation  was  in  this  in- 
stance out  of  the  question. 

Some  writers  have  doubted  whether  those  complex  mental 
attributes,  on  which  genius  and  talent  depend,  are  inherited, 
even  when  both  parents  are  thus  endowed.  But  he  who  will 
study  Mr.  Galton's  able  work  on  '  Hereditary  Genius '  will 
have  his  doubts  allayed. 

Unfortunately  it  matters  not,  as  far  as  inheritance  is  con- 
cerned, how  injurious  a  quality  or  structure  may  be  if  com- 
patible with  life.  I^o  one  can  read  the  many  treatises  "  on 
hereditary  disease  and  doubt  this.  The  ancients  were  strong- 
ly of  this  opinion,  or,  as  Ranchin  expresses  it,  Omnes  Grceci, 
Arahes,  et  Latini  in  eo  consentiunt.  A  long  catalogue  could 
be  given  of  all  sorts  of  inherited  malformations  and  of  predis- 
position to  various  diseases.  With  gout,  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
cases  observed  in  hospital  practice  are,  according  to  Dr.  Gar- 
rod,  inherited,  and  a  greater  percentage  in  private  practice. 
Every  one  knows  how  often  insanity  runs  in  families,  and 
some  of  the  cases  given  by  Mr.  Sedgwick  are  awful, — as  of  a 
surgeon,  whose  brother,  father,  and  four  paternal  uncles  were 
all  insane,  the  latter  dying  by  suicide ;  of  a  Jew,  whose  father, 
mother,  and  six  brothers  and  sisters  were  all  mad;  and  in 
some  other  cases  several  members  of  the  same  family,  during 
three  of  four  successive  generations,  have  committed  suicide. 
Striking  instances  have  been  recorded  of  epilepsy,  consump- 
tion, asthma,  stone  in  the  bladder,  cancer,  profuse  bleeding 
from  the  slightest  injuries,  of  the  mother  not  giving  milk, 
and  of  bad  parturition  being  inherited.  In  this  latter  re- 
spect I  may  mention  an  odd  case  given  by  a  good  observer,"  in 
which  the  fault  lay  in  the  offspring,  and  not  in  the  mother: 


^^  The  works  which  I  have  read 
and  found  most  useful  are  Dr. 
Prosper  Liicas's  great  work, 
•  Traito  de  I'Heredite  Naturelle,* 
1847;  Mr.  W.  Sedgcwiek.  in  '  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurg. 
Review.'  April  and  Jnlv.  1801, 
and  April  and  July.  1863;  Dr. 
Garrod  on  Gout  is  quoted  in  these 
articles.  Sir  Henry  Holland, 
'  Medical  Notes  and  Reflections.' 
3rd  edit..  1855.  Piorrv,  '  De  I'He- 
redite dans  les  Maladies.'  1840. 
Adams,  '  A  Philosophical  Treatise 


on  Hereditary  Peculiarities.'  2nd 
edit.,  1815.  Essay  on  '  Heredi- 
tary Diseases,'  by  Dr.  J.  Steinan, 
1843.  See  Paget,  in  '  Medical 
Times,'  1857,  p.  192,  on  the  In- 
heritance of  Cancer;  Dr.  Gould, 
in  '  Proc.  of  American  Acad,  of 
Sciences,'  Nov.  8,  1853,  gives  a 
curious  case  of  hereditary  bleed- 
ing in  four  generations.  Harlan, 
'  Medical  Researches,'  p.  593. 

"  Marshall,    quoted   by    Youatt 
in  his  work  on  Cattle,  p.  284. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE. 


441 


in  a  part  of  Yorkshire  the  farmers  continued  to  sek-ct  cattle 
with  large  hind-quarters,  until  they  madt-  a  strain  called 
"  Dutch-buttocked,"  and  "the  monstrous  size  of  the  l)Utt<K'ks 
of  the  calf  was  frequently  fatal  to  the  cow,  and  numbers  of 
cows  were  annually  lost  in  calving." 

Instead  of  giving  numerous  details  on  viuious  inhcrilcd  mal- 
formations and  diseases,  I  will  conline  myself  to  one  or«::iii.  tluit 
which  is  the  most  complex,  delicate,  and 'probably  best-kn<.\vn  in 
the  human  frame,  namely,  the  eye,  with  its  aceessory  partH.'»  To 
begin  with  the  latter:  I  have  received  on  aocount  oV  u  fnniily  in 
which  one  parent  and  the  children  are  atfceted  by  drooping  vw- 
lids,  in  so  pecuhar  a  manner,  that  they  cannot  see  without  throw- 
ing their  heads  backwards.  Mr.  Wade,  of  Wakefield,  lias  given 
me  an  analogous  case  of  a  man  who  had  not  his  evelids  thus  af- 
fected at  birth,  nor  owed  their  state,  as  far  as  was  knuwii,  to  in- 
heritance, but  they  began  to  droop  whilst  he  was  an  infant  after 
sufl'ering  from  fits,  and  he  has  transmitted  the  alleetion  to  two 
out  of  his  three  children,  as  was  evident  in  tiie  photographs  of 
the  whole  family  sent  to  me  together  with  this  account.  Sir  A. 
Carlisle "  specifies  a  pendidous  fold  to  the  eyelids,  as  inherited, 
*'  In  a  family,"  says  Sir  H.  Holland,"  "  where  the  father  liad  a 
singular  elongation  of  the  upper  eyelid,  seven  or  eight  children 
were  bom  with  the  same  deformity;  two  or  three  other  cliildren 
having  it  not."  Many  persons,  as  I  hear  from  Sir  J.  Paget,  liave 
two  or  three  hairs  in  their  eyebrows  much  longer  than  the  otlier><: 
and  even  so  trifling  a  peculiarity  as  this  certaiidy  runs  in 
families. 

With  respect  to  the  eye  itself,  the  highest  authority  in  Knir- 
land,  Mr.  Bowman,  has  been  so  kind  as  to  give  me  the  following 
remarks  on  certain  inherited  imperfections.  First,  hyj)ernietropia, 
or  morbidly  long  sight:  in  this  affection,  the  organ,  instead  of  l>o- 
ing  spherical,  is  too  flat  from  front  to  back,  and  is  often  altogether 
too  small,  so  that  the  retina  is  brought  too  forward  for  the  f(»cjis 
of  the  humours  consequently  a  convex  glass  is  re<|uiied  for  clear 
vision  of  near  objects,  and  frequently  even  of  distant  ones.  TJiin 
state  occurs  congenitally,  or  at  a  very  early  age.  often  in  several 
children  of  the  same  family,  where  one  of  the  parents  luis  presented 
it,"  Secondly,  myopia,  or  short-sight,  in  wliich  the  eye  is  egg- 
shaped  and  too  long  from  front  to  back;  the  retina  in  this  ease  lies 
behind  the  focus,  and  is  therefore  fitted  to  see  distinctly  only  very 

"  Almost      any      other      orpran  "  '  Medical    Notes   nnd    Ueflec- 

might    have    been    selected.      For  tions.'  .'^rd  edit.,  |>.  .^.^. 
instance,   Mr.   J.   Tomes,   'System  »«  This  afTe.-tloii,  as  I  hear  from 

of     Dental     Surgery,'     2nd     edit.,  Mr.    Bowman,    liiis   tte.Mi   Ml>ly   dc- 

1873,  p.  114,  gives  many  Instances  scribed   and  six. ken   of  ns   her.-di- 

with  teeth,  and  others  have  been  tary  by  I>r.    Dnnders  i>f   Iir.'.-ht. 

coramnnlcated  to  me.  whose     work     was     i)iil>llshed     In 

1*  '  Phllosoph.   Transact.,'  1814,  English  by  the  Sydenham  Society 

p.  94.  in  1864. 


442  IXHERITAXCE.  Chap.  XII. 

near  objects.  This  condition  is  not  commonly  congenital,  but 
comes  on  in  youth,  the  liability  to  it  being  well  known  to  be  trans- 
missible from  parent  to  child.  The  change  from  the  spherical  to 
the  ovoidal  shape  seems  the  immediate  consequence  of  something 
like  inflammation  of  the  coats,  under  which  thev  vield,  and  there 
is  ground  for  believing  that  it  may  often  originate  in  causes  acting 
on  the  individual  ati'ected,"  and  may  thenceforward  become  trans- 
missible. When  both  parents  are  myopic  Mr.  Bowman  has  ob- 
served the  hereditary  tendency  in  this  direction  to  be  heightened, 
and  some  of  the  children  to  be  myopic  at  an  earlier  age  or  in  a 
higher  degree  than  their  parents.  Thirdly,  squinting  is  a  familiar 
example  of  hereditary  transmission :  it  is  frequently  a  result  of  such 
optical  defects  as  have  been  above  mentioned;  but  the  more  pri- 
mary and  uncomplicated  foims  of  it  are  also  sometimes  in  a  marked 
degree  transmitted  in  a  family.  Fourthly,  Cataract,  or  opacity  of 
the  crystalline  lens,  is  commonly  observed  in  persons  whose  par- 
ents have  been  similarly  atiected,  and  often  at  an  earlier  aiie  in  the 
children  than  in  the  parents.  Occasionalh"  more  than  one  child  in  a 
family  is  thus  afflicted,  one  of  whose  parents  or  other  relations,  pre- 
sents the  senile  form  of  the  complaint.  When  cataract  affects  sev- 
eral members  of  a  family  in  the  same  generation,  it  is  often  seen  to 
commence  at  about  the  same  age  in  each:  e.g.,  in  one  family  sev- 
eral infants  or  young  persons  may  suffer  from  it;  in  another,  sev- 
eral persons  of  middle  age.  Mr.  Bowman  also  informs  me  that  he 
has  occasionally  seen,  in  several  members  of  the  same  family,  vari- 
ous  defects  in  either  the  right  or  left  eye;  and  Mr.  White  Cooper 
has  often  seen  peculiarities  of  vision  confined  to  one  eye  reappear- 
ing in  the  same  eye  in  the  oflTspring.^** 

The  following  cases  are  taken  from  an  able  paper  by  Mr.  W. 
Sedgwick,  and  from  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas.^^  Amaurosis,  either  con- 
genital or  coming  on  late  in  life,  and  ^ causing  total  blindness,  is 
often  inherited;  it  has  been  observed  in  three  successive  genera- 
tions. Congenital  absence  of  the  iris  has  likewise  been  transmitted 
for  three  generations,  a  cleft-iris  for  four  generations,  being  lim- 
ited in  this  latter  case  to  the  males  of  the  family.  Opacity  of  the 
cornea  and  congenital  smallness  of  the  eyes  have  been  inherited. 
Portal  records  a  curious  case,  in  which  a  father  and  two  sons  were 
rendered  blind,  whenever  the  head  was  bent  downwards,  apparent- 
ly owing  to  the  crystalline  lens,  with  its  capsule,  slipping  through 
an  unusually  large  pupil  into  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye. 
Day-blindness,  or  imperfect  vision  under  a  bright  light,  is  inher- 
ited, as  is  night-blindness  or  an  incapacity  to  see  except  under  a 
strong  light:   a  case  has  been  recorded,  by  M.  Cunier,  of  this  latter 

^■^  M.  Giraud-Teulon  has  recent-  "Quoted  by  Mr.  Herbert  Spen- 

l.v   coUectefl    abmiflnnt    statistical  cer.    '  Principles  of  Biology,'   vol. 

evidence,  'Revue  des  Cours  Scien-  i.  p.  244. 

tifiques,'  Sept.,  1870,  p.  625,  show-  lo  '  British    and    Foreign    Medi- 

ing  that  short  sight  is  due  to  the  co-Chirurg.    Review,'    April.    1861, 

habit   of   viewing  objects   from   a  pp.   482-6:    '  L'Hered,   Nat.,'   torn, 

short     distance,     c'cst     le     travail  i.  pp.  391-408. 
assidu,  dc  prcs. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  44:» 

defect  having  afTected  eighty-five  niembera  of  tlio  same  family  dur- 
ing six  generations.  The  singular  incapacity  of  dislinguishjnjr  col- 
ours, which  has  been  called  DdUonism,  is*  notriousis  herctliturv, 
and  has  been  traced  through  live  generations,  in  wliic'h  ii  was  coii- 
fined  to  the  female  sex. 

With  respect  to  the  colour  of  the  iris:  (lelicicncy  of  colouring 
matter  is  well  known  to  be  hereditary  in  albinocs.  Tlic  iris  of  oin' 
eye  being  of  dilierent  colour  from  that  of  the  other,  and  the  iiin 
being  spotted,  are  cases  which  have  been  inherited.  Mr.  S»;il<,'\vuk 
gives,  in  addition,  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Osborne,'-'*'  the  followiiif^ 
curious  instance  of  strong  inheritance:  a  family  of  sixteen  sons  jind 
five  daughters  all  had  eyes  "resembling  in  nnniature  tlie  nuukin;,'* 
on  the  back  of  a  tortoiseshell  cat."  Tlie  mother  of  this  large  fam- 
ily had  three  sisters  and  a  brother  all  sinularly  marked,  and  tliey 
derived  this  peculiarity  from  their  motlier,  who  bel()n;ied  to  a  fam- 
ily notorious  for  transmitting  it  to  their  posterity. 

Finally,  Dr.  Lucas  emphatically  remarks  that  there  is  not  one 
single  faculty  of  the  eye  which  is  not  subject  to  anomalies;  and 
not  one  which  is  not  subjected  to  the  principle  of  inlieiitam-e.  .Mr. 
Bowman  agrees  with  the  geneial  truth  of  this  projxisitinn;  which 
of  course  does  not  imply  that  all  malformations  an-  neecsst\rily 
inherited;  this  would  not  even  follow  if  both  parents  were  af- 
fected by  an  anomaly  which  in  most  cases  was  transinissihie. 

Even  if  no  single  fact  had  been  known  with  respect  to  tlie 
inheritance  of  disease  and  malformations  by  man,  tlie  evi- 
dence would  have  been  ample  in  the  case  of  the  horse.  And 
this  might  have  been  expected,  as  horses  breed  nuicli  (luickcr 
than  man,  are  matched  with  care,  and  are  highly  vahicd.  I 
have  consulted  many  works,  and  the  unanimity  of  the  belief 
by  veterinaries  of  all  nations  in  the  transmission  of  vari(tu>i 
morbid  tendencies  is  surprising.  Authors  who  have  had 
wide  experience  give  in  detail  many  singular  cases,  and  as- 
sert that  contracted  feet,  with  the  numerous  contingent  evils, 
of  ring-bones,  curbs,  splints,  spavin,  founder  and  weakness  of 
the  front  legs,  roaring  or  broken  and  thick  wind,  melanosis, 
specific  ophthalmia,  and  blindness  (the  great  French  veterin- 
ary Huzard  going  so  far  as  to  say  that  a  blind  race  could 
soon  be  formed),  crib-biting,  jibbing  and  ill-temper,  are  all 
plainly  hereditary.  Youatt  sums  up  by  saying  "there  is 
scarcely  a  malady  to  which  the  horse  is  subject  which  is  not 
hereditary;"  and  M.  Bernard  adds  that  the  doctrine  "that 
there  is  scarcely  a  disease  which  does  not  run  in  the  stock,  is 

==oDr.   Osborne,   Pres.  of  Royal        MsIumI    this    ease    in    1 1..;    •  DubHa 
College  of  Phys.   iu  Ireland,  pub-        Medical  .l..nin.il.    f<.i   In—- 


U4t 


INHERITANCE. 


Chap.  XII. 


gaining  new  advocates  every  day."  "  So  it  is  in  regard  to 
cattle,  with  consumption,  good  and  bad  teeth,  fine  skin,  &c. 
But  enough,  and  more  than  enough,  has  beer  said  on 
disease.  Andrew  Knight,  from  his  own  experience,  asserts 
that  disease  is  hereditary  with  plants;  and  this  assertion  is 
endorsed  by  Lindley.''' 

Seeing  how  hereditary  evil  qualities  are,  it  is  fortunate 
that  good  healtk^  vigour,  and  longevity  are  equally  inherited. 
It  was  formerly  a  well-known  practice,  when  annuities  were 
purchased  to  be  received  during  the  life-time  of  a  nominee,  to 
search  out  a  person  belonging  to  a  family  of  which  many 
members  had  li'ved  to  extreme  old  age.  As  to  the  inheritance 
x)f  vigour  and  ■endurance,  the  English  race-horse  offers  an  ex- 
•cellent  insta4i<ce.  Eclipse  begot  334,  and  King  Herod  497 
"winners.  A  ^^  Cock-tail "  is  a  horse  not  purely  bred,  but 
with  only  oTi^-eighth,  or  one-sixteenth  impure  blood  in  his 
'veins,  yet  very  few  instances  have  ever  occurred  of  such  horses 
-having  won  a  great  race.  They  are  sometimes  as  fleet  for 
short  dista'fKies  as  thoroughbreds,  but  as  Mr.  Kobson,  the 
.great  trainer,  asserts,  they  are  deficient  in  wind,  and  cannot 
ieep  up  the  pace.  Mr.  Lawrence  also  remarks,  "  perhaps  no 
-instance  has  ever  occurred  of  a  three-part-bred  horse  saving 
iis  '  distance '  in  running  two  miles  with  thoroughbred 
-racers."  It  has  been  stated  by  Cecil,  that  when  unknown 
liorses,  whose  parents  were  not  celebrated,  have  unexpectedly 
won  great  races,  as  in  the  case  of  Priam,  they  can  always  be 
proved  to  be  descended  on  both  sides,  through  many  genera- 
tions, from  first-rate  ancestors.  On  the  Continent,  Baron 
Cameronn  challenges,  in  a  German  veterinary  periodical,  the 
opponents  of  the  English  race-horse  to  name  one  good  horse 

on  Goitre  in  Dogs,  vol.  v.  p.  483; 
Youatt  in  vol.  vi.  pp.  66,  348,  412; 
M.  Bernard,  vol.  xi.  p.  539;  Dr. 
Samesreuther,  on  Cattle,  in  vol. 
xii.  p.  181;  Percivall,  in  vol.  xiii. 
p.  47.  With  respect  to  blindness 
in  horses,  see  also  a  whole  row  of 
authorities  in  Dr.  P.  Lucas's 
great  work,  torn.  I.  p.  390.  Mr. 
Baker  in  '  The  Veterinary,'  vol. 
xiii.  p.  721,  gives  a  strong  case  of 
hereditary  imperfect  vision  and 
of  jibbing. 

"  Knight  on  '  The  Culture  of 
the  Apple  and  Pear,'  p.  34.  Lind- 
ley's  *  Horticulture,'  p.  180. 


i 


"  These  various  statements  are 
taken  from  the  following  works 
and  Papers:— Youatt  on  '  The 
Horse,'  pp.  35,  220.  Lawrence, 
'  The  Horse,'  p.  30.  Karkeek,  in 
an  excellent  paper  in  '  Gard. 
Chronicle,'  1853.  p.  92.  Mr.  Burke, 
in  *  Journal  of  R.  Agricul.  Soc.  of 
England,'  vol.  v.  p.  511.  '  Ency- 
clop.  of  Rural  Sports,'  p.  279. 
Girou  de  Buzareignues,  '  Philo- 
soph.  Phys.,'  p.  215.  See  the  fol- 
lowing papers  in  *  The  Veterin- 
ary: '  Roberts,  in  vol.  ii.  p.  144; 
M.  Marrimpoey,  vol.  ii.  p.  387; 
Mr.  Karkeek,  vol.  iv.  p.  5;  Youatt 


fen 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


445 


on  the  Continent,  which  has  not  some  English  racc-bhxxi  in 

h23 
IS  veins. 

With  respect  to  the  transmission  of  the  many  sli^^'ht,  but 
infinitely  diversified  characters,  by  which  the  domestic  races 
of  animals  and  plants  are  distinguished,  nothing  need  be 
said;  for  the  very  existence  of  persistent  races  proclaims  the 
power  of  inheritance. 

A  few  special  cases,  however,  deserve  some  consideration. 
It  might  have  been  anticipated,  that  deviations  from  the  law 
of  symmetry  would  not  have  been  inherited.  But  Anderson  " 
states  that  a  rabbit  produced  in  a  litter  a  young  animal  hav- 
ing only  one  ear;  and  from  this  animal  a  breed  was  formed 
which  steadily  produced  one-eared  rabbits.  He  also  men- 
tions a  bitch  with  a  single  leg  deficient,  and  she  produced 
several  puppies  with  the  same  deficiency.  From  Ilofacker's 
account,*^  it  appears  that  a  one-horned  stag  was  seen  in  1781 
in  a  forest  in  Germany,  in  1788  two,  and  afterwards,  from 
year  to  year,  many  were  obseiwed  with  only  one  horn  on  the 
right  side  of  the  head.  A  cow  lost  a  horn  by  suppuration," 
and  she  produced  three  calves  which  had  on  the  same  side  of 
the  head,  instead  of  a  horn,  a  small  bony  lump  attached 
merely  to  the  skin;  but  we  here  encroach  on  the  subject  of 
inherited  mutilations.  A  man  who  is  left-handed,  and  a 
shell  in  which  the  spire  turns  in  the  wrong  directions,  are 
departures  from  the  normal  asymmetrical  condition,  and  they 
are  well  known  to  be  inherited. 

Po7?/^f/r/////-5/>».— Supernumerary  fingers  and  toes  are  eminently 
liable,  "as  various  authors  have  insisted,  to  be  inherited.  P.»ly- 
dactylism  graduates  "  by  multifarious  steps  from  a  mere  cutaneous 
appendage,  not  including  any  bone,  to  a  double  hand.  But  an  ad- 
ditional digit,  supported  on  a  metacarpal  bone,  and  furnished  with 
all  the  proper  muscles,  nerves,  and  vessels,  is  sometimes  so  perfect, 


2«  These  statements  are  taken 
from  the  followinsr  works  in  or- 
der:—Youatt  on  '  The  Horse.'  p. 
48;  Mr.  Darvill,  in  '  The  Veter- 
inary,' vol.  viii.  p.  50.  With  re- 
spect to  Robson,  see  '  The  Veter- 
inary,' yol.  iii.  p.  580;  Mr.  Law- 
rence on  '  The  Horse.'  1829,  p.  9; 
*  The  Stud  Farm,'  by  Cecil,  1S;)1; 
Baron  Cameronn,  quoted  in  '  The 
Veterinary,'  vol.  x.  p.  500. 

-*  '  Recreations  in  Agrriculture 
and  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  i.  p.  68. 


"  *  Ueber  die  Klgenschaftrn,* 
&c..  1828.  s.  107. 

20  Bronn's  '  Goschlchte  dor  Na- 
tur."    Band   11.   s.    l.TJ. 

-''  Vrollk  has  tlisciissed  this 
point  at  full  h-nirth  in  n  work 
published  in  Dutch,  from  which 
Sir  J.  Pag«'t  has  kliullv  trans- 
lated for  nie  passages,  firr  niso. 
Isidore  GeofTroy  St.-Hllalrc  h 
*  Hist,  des  Au0iuallc«,'  15>32,  toui. 
i,   p.  G84, 


446  INHERITAXCE.  Chap.  XII. 

that  it  escapes  detection,  unless  the  fingers  are  actually  counted. 
Occasionally  there  are  several  supernumerary  digits:  but  usually 
only  one,  making  the  total  number  six.  This  one  may  be  attached 
to  the  inner  or  outer  margin  of  the  hand,  represenling  either  a 
thumb  or  little  finger,  the  latter  being  the  more  frequent.  Gener- 
ally, through  the  law  of  correlation,  Ijoth  hands  and  both  feet  are 
similarly  atfected.  Dr.  Burt  Wilder  has  tabulated  -^  a  large  num- 
ber  of  cases,  and  finds  that  supernumerary  digits  are  more  common 
on  the  hands  than  on  the  feet,  and  that  men  are  affected  oftener 
than  women.  Both  these  facts  can  be  explained  on  two  principles 
which  seem  generally  to  hold  good;  firstly,  that  of  two  parts,  the 
more  specialised  one  is  the  more  variable,  and  the  arm  is  more 
highly  specialised  than  the  leg;  and  secondly  that  male  animals 
are  more  variable  than  females. 

The  presence  of  a  greater  number  of  digits  than  five  is  a  great 
anomaly,  for  this  number  is  not  normally  exceeded  by  an}^  exist- 
ing mammal,  bird,  or  reptile.  Xevertheless,  supernumerary  digits 
are  strongly  inherited;  they  have  been  transmitted  through  "five 
generations;  and  in  some  cases,  after  disappearing  for  one,  two, 
or  even  three  generations,  have  reappeared  through  reversion. 
These  facts  are  rendered,  as  Professor  Huxley  has  observed,  more 
remarkable  from  its  being  known  in  most  cases  that  the  afl'eeted 
person  has  not  married  one  similarly  affected.  In  such  cases  the 
child  of  the  fifth  generation  would  have  only  j^  part  of  the 
blood  of  his  first  sedigitated  ancestor.  Other  cases  are  rendered 
remarkable  by  the  affection  gathering  force,  as  Dr.  Struthers  has 
shown,  in  each  generation,  though  in  each  the  affected  person  mar- 
ried one  not  affected;  moreover,  such  additional  digits  are  often 
amputated  soon  after  birth,  and  can  seldom  have  been  strength- 
ened by  use.  Dr.  Struthers  gives  the  following  instance:  in  the 
first  generation  an  additional  digit  appeared  on  one  hand;  in  the 
second,  on  both  hands;  in  the  third,  three  brothers  had  both 
hands,  and  one  of  the  brothers  a  foot  affected;  and  in  the  fourth 
generation  all  four  limbs  were  affected.  Yet  we  must  not  over- 
estimate the  force  of  inheritance.  Dr.  Struthers  asserts  that  cases 
of  non-inheritance  and  of  the  first  appearance  of  additional  digits 
in  unaffected  families  are  much  more  frequent  than  cases  of  in- 
heritance. Many  other  deviations  of  structure,  of  a  nature  almost 
as  anomalous  as  supernumerary  digits,  such  as  deficient  pha- 
langes,"'' thickened  joints,  crooked  fingers,  &c.,  are,  in  like  manner, 
strongly  inherited,  and  are  equally  subject  to  intermission,  to- 
gether with  reversion,  though  in  such  cases  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  both  parents  had  been  similarly  affected.^ 


30 


-8  '  Massachusetts    Medical    So-  cent  papers  on  inheritance,  '  Brit, 

cietv."   vol.    ii.   No.   3;   and   '  Proc.  and    For.    Med.-Chirurg.    Review,* 

Boston    Soc.    of   Nat.    Hist.,'    vol.  Ap.,  1872. 
xiv.,   1871.  p.  154.  ^^  For  these  several  statements, 

23  Dr.  J.  W.  Ogle  gives  a  case  of  sre     Dr.     Struthers.      'Edinburgh 

the   inhei-itnnce   of   deficient   piia-  New  Phil.  Journal,'  July,  1863,  es- 

langes    during    four    generations.  pecially    on    intermissions    in    the 

He  adds  references  to  various  re-  line    of    descent.     Prof.    Huxley, 


Chap.  XII. 


INHERITANCE. 


44' 


Additional  digits  have  been  observed  in  ne<riocs  as  well  uh  in 
other  races  of  man,  and  in  several  of  the  l(»\v»'r  animals,  jind  have 
been  inherited.  Six  toes  liave  been  de^erilji-d  on  Un'  hind  fc<'t  of 
the  newt  (Salmnandra  cristata),  and  are  said  (o  have  oecurrtHl 
Avith  the  frog.  It  deserves  notice,  that  the  six-tot-d  newt,  thon;,'h 
adult,  preserved  some  of  its  larval  characteis;  f<»r  part  of  the 
hyoidal  apparatus,  which  is  properly  ahsorhcil  durin;;  ilu*  act  of 
metamorphosis,  was  retained.  It  is  also  reniarkahle  that  in  the 
case  of  man  various  structures  in  an  embryonic  or  arrr»te«l  ntate 
of  development,  such  as  a  cleft-palate,  bilitl  uterus,  &c.,  are  often 
accompanied  by  polydactylism.^^  Six  toes  on  the  hinder  fri-t  are 
known  to  have  been  inherited  for  three  generations  of  cats.  In 
several  breeds  of  the  fowl  tlie  hinder  toe  is  douhU',  and  is  gcnrrally 
transmitted  truly,  as  is  well  shown  when  Dorkings  are  cro>Mnl 
with  common  four-toed  breeds.^-  ^^'ith  animals  which  have  prop- 
erly less  than  five  digits,  the  number  is  sometimes  increased  to 
five,  especially  on  the  front  legs,  tliough  rarely  carried  l)cyon<l  that 
number;  but  this  is  due  to  the  development  of  a  digit  already  ex- 
isting in  a  more  or  less  rudimentary  state.  Thus,  the  dog  has 
properly  four  toes  behind,  but  in  the  larger  bree<ls  a  fifth  toe  is 
commonly,  though  not  perfectly,  developed.  Horses,  which  prop- 
erly have  one  toe  alone  fully  developed  with  rudinicnls  of  the 
others,  have  been  described  with  each  foot  bearing  two  or  thnn; 
small  separate  hoofs:  analogous  facts  have  been  noticed  with  cows, 
sheep,  goats,  and  pigs."* 

There  is  a  famous  case  described  by  Mr.  White  of  a  child,  three 
years  old,  with  a  thumb  double  from  the  first  joint.  He  icmoved 
the  lesser  thumb,  which  was  furnished  Avith  a  nail;  but  to  his 
astonishment  it  grew  again  and  reproduced  a  nail.  The  child  was 
then  taken  to  an  eminent  London  surgeon,  and  the  newly-grown 


'  Lectures  on  our  Knowledpre  of 
Organic  Nature,'  18G3,  p.  97.  With 
respect  to  inheritance,  -s^e  Dr. 
Prosper  Lucas,  '  L'Heredite  Nat.,' 
torn.  i.  p.  325.  Isid.  Geoffrey, 
'  Anom.,'  tom.  i.  p.  701.  Sir  A. 
Carlisle,  in  '  Phil.  Transact.,' 
1814,  p.  94.  A.  Walker,  on  '  In- 
termarriase,'  1838,  p.  140,  gives 
a  ease  of  five  generations;  as  does 
Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  '  Brit,  and  For- 
eign Medico-Chirurg.  Review.' 
April.  1SG3,  p.  4G2.  On  the  in- 
heritance of  other  anomalies  in 
the  extremities,  s^p  Dr.  H.  Dobell, 
in  vol.  xlvi.  of  '  Medico-Chirurg. 
Transactions.'  1803;  nlso  Mr. 
Sedgwick,  in  op.  cit.,  April.  1803, 
p.  400.  With  respect  to  additional 
digits  in  the  negro,  see  Pridiard. 
'  Physical  History  of  Mankind.' 
Dr.  '  Dieffenbach  ('  Jour.  Royal 
Geograph.  Soc.,'  1841,  p.  208)  says 
this  anomaly  is  not  uncommon 
with  the  Polynesians  of  the  Chat- 


ham Islands:  and  I  have  licard  of 
several  cases  with  Hiu'lns  an<l 
Arabs. 

31  Meckel  and  Isi.l.  C.  Si.-Hi- 
laire  insist  on  this  f.act.  N  <  also 
M.  A.  Roujou.  '  Snr  tineltpies  Ana- 
logies du"Tyi)e  Hnmaiii.*  p.  <"«1: 
published.  I  bi'lieve.  in  the  '  .loiir- 
nal  of  the  Antliropol<»g.  S«»e.  of 
Parts.'  .Tan..  Is7l'.  ,   ,    , 

•'-  •  Tlie       Poult  rv       Cliroiil.-le, 
1854.  p.  550. 

^"  The  statfMuents  In  tills  nam- 
graph     are     takm     from     Isidore 
Geoffrov    St.-Ililain'.     '  U-  •       '  ••< 
Anomalies,'    tom.    1.    pl». 
INIr.    (Jooilnuui    gives.    "  1'! 
of  Candiridge,'   Nov.  25.   1M2.   the 
case  of  a  cow  with  three  wrO  •'•• 
A-eloped    toes   on    e.Mch    Idnd    1 
besid(>s    the    ordinary    ru.lim.Mi  -. 
and   iHT  eaif  l>v   :>"  or'!iii.irv  bull 
had   extra   digits.      This  .-alf  also 
bore     two     calves     having     exira 
digits. 


448  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

thumb  was  removed  by  its  socket-joint,  but  again  it  grew  and  re- 
produced a  nail.  Dr.  Struthers  mentions  a  case  of  the  partial  re- 
growth  of  an  additional  thumb,  amputated  when  a  child  was  three 
months  old;  and  the  late  Dr.  Falconer  communicated  to  me  an 
analogous  instance.  In  the  last  edition  of  this  work  I  also  gave 
a  case  of  the  regrowth  of  a  supernumerary  little-finger  after  ampu- 
tation ;  but  having  been  informed  by  Dr.  Bachmaier  that  several 
eminent  surgeons  expressed,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Munich,  great  doubt  about  my  statements,  I  have  made 
more  particular  inquiries.  The  full  information  thus  gained,  to- 
gether with  a  tracing  of  the  hand  in  its  present  state,  has  been 
laid  before  Sir  J.  Paget,  and  he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  degree  of  regrowth  in  this  case  is  not  greater  than  sometimes 
occurs  with  normal  bones,  especially  with  the  humerus,  when  am- 
putated at  an  early  age.  He  further  does  not  feel  fully  satisfied 
about  the  facts  recorded  by  Mr.  White.  This  being  so,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  me  to  withdraw  the  view  which  I  formerly  advanced,  with 
much  hesitation,  chiefly  on  the  ground  of  the  supposed  regrowth 
of  additional  digits,  namely,  that  their  occasional  development  in 
man  is  a  case  of  reversion  to  a  lowly-organised  progenitor  provided 
with  more  than  five  digits. 

I  may  here  allude  to  a  class  of  facts  closely  allied  to,  but 
somewhat  different  from,  ordinary  cases  of  inheritance.  Sir 
H.  Holland  ^*  states  that  brothers  and  sisters  of  the  same 
family  are  frequently  affected,  often  at  about  the  same  age, 
by  the  same  peculiar  disease,  not  known  to  have  previously 
occurred  in  the  family.  He  specifies  the  occurrence  of  dia- 
betes in  three  brothers  under  ten  years  old ;  he  also  remarks 
that  children  of  the  same  family  often  exhibit,  in  common 
infantile  diseases,  the  same  peculiar  symptoms.  My  father 
mentioned  to  me  the  case  of  four  brothers  who  died  between 
the  ages  of  sixty  and  seventy,  in  the  same  highly  peculiar 
comatose  state.  An  instance  has  already  been  given  of  super- 
numerary digits  appearing  in  four  children  out  of  six  in  a 
previously  unaffected  family.  Dr.  Devay  states  ^'  that  two 
brothers  married  two  sisters,  their  first-cousins,  none  of  the 
four  nor  any  relation  being  an  albino ;  but  the  seven  children 
produced  from  this  double  marriage  were  all  perfect  albinoes. 
Some  of  these  cases,  as  Mr.  Sedgwick  ^^  has  shown,  are  prob- 
ably the  result  of  reversion  to  a  remote  ancestor,  of  whom  no 

3*  '  Medical    Notes    and    Reflec-  Consanguins,'    2nd   edit.,    1862,    p. 

tlons.'  1839,  pp.  24,  34.     See,  also,  103. 

Dr.  P.  Lucas,  '  L'H6r6d.  Nat.,'  ^e 'prj^^jc-i^  j^nd  Foreign  Medico- 
torn,  ii.  p.  33.  Chirnrg.   Review/  July,   18G3,   pp. 

"  '  Du    Danger    des    Mariages  183,  189. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  ^^c> 

record  had  been  preserved;  and  all  these  Q(m^  arc  so  far  di- 
rectly connected  with  inheritance  that  ik^  dciibt  tlie  childn-n 
inherited  a  similar  constitution  from  their  inux'Mts.  and.  fr„in 
being  exposed  to  nearly  similar  conditions  of  liu-,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  they  should  be  affected  iu  the  san'ic  manner 
and  at  the  same  period  of  life. 

Most  of  the  facts  hitherto  given  have  served  to  illustrate 
the  force  of  inheritance,  but  we  must  ^.o^Y  consider  cases 
grouped  as  well  as  the  subject  allows  i.iitp  classes,  showing^ 
how  feeble,  capricious,  or  deficient  the  po^yer  of  inheritance, 
sometimes  is.  When  a  new  peculiarity  first  appears,  we  can-. 
never  predict  whether  it  will  be  inherited.  If  both  parents" 
from  their  birth  present  the  same  peculiarity,  the  probability 
is  strong  that  it  will  be  transmitted  to  at  least  some  of  their 
offspring.  We  have  seen  that  variegation  is  transmitted 
much  more  freely  by  seed,  taken  from  a  branch  which  had 
become  variegated  through  bud-variation,  tha;i  from  plants 
which  were  variegated  as  seedlings.  With  most  plants  the- 
power  of  transmission  notoriously  depends  on  some  innate- 
capacity  in  the  individual :  thus  Vihnoriji ''  raised  from  a. 
peculiarly  coloured  balsam  some  seedlings,  which  all  resem- 
bled their  parent;  but  of  these  seedlings  some  failed  to  trans- 
mit the  new  character,  whilst  others  transmitted  it  to  all 
their  descendants  during  several  successive  generations.  So- 
again  with  a  variety  of  the  rose,  two  plants  alone  out  of  six. 
were  found  by  Vilmorin  to  be  capable  of  transmitting  the- 
desired  character;  numerous  analogous  cases  could  be  given. 

The  weeping  or  pendulous  growth  of  trees  is  strongly  inherited 
in  some  cases,  and,  without  any  assignable  reason,  feel)ly  in  other 
cases.  I  have  selected  this  character  as  an  instance  of  caprii-ijms. 
inheritance,  because  it  is  certainly  not  proper  to  tlie  parent-species, 
and  because,  both  sexes  being  borne  on  the  same  tree,  both  tend  to. 
transmit  the  same  character.  Even  supposing  that  tlierc  may  have 
been  in  some  instances  crossing  with  adjoining  trees  of  tlie  same 
species,  it  is  not  probable  that  all  the  seedlings  would  have  been 
thus  affected.  At  Moccas  Court  tltere  is  a  famous  weeping  oak; 
many  of  its  branches  "  are  30  feet  lotatg-,  and  no  thicker  in  any  part 
of  this  length  than  a  common  rope:  "  this  tree  transmits  its  wiM'p- 
ing  character,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  to  al!  its  seedlings;  some- 

"  Verlot,  'La  Product,  des  Yadjetes,'.  Iti03,.p.  ..'{2. 


450  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

of  the  young  oaks  being  so  flexible  that  they  have  to  be  supported 
by  props;  others  not  showing  the  weeping  tendency  till  about 
twent}^  years  old.^*  Mr.  Rivers  fertilised,  as  he  informs  me,  the 
flowers  of  a  new  Belgian  weeping  thorn  (Cratwgus  o.ri/acantha)  with 
pollen  from  a  cfimson  not-weeping  variety,  and  three  young  trees, 
"  now  six  or  seven  years  old,  show  a  decided  tendency  to  be  pendu- 
lous, but  as  yet  are  not  so  much  so  as  the  mother-plant."  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  MacNab,^'*  seedlings  from  a  magnificent  weeping  birch 
(Bet Ilia  alba),  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Edinburgh,  grew  for  the 
first  ten  or  fifteen  years  upright,  but  then  all  became  weepers  like 
their  parent.  A  peach  with  pendulous  branches,  like  those  of  the 
weeping  willow,  has  been  found  capable  of  propagation  by  seed.*" 
Lastly,  a  weeping  or  rather  a  prostrate  yew  [Taxus  haccata)  was 
found  in  a  hedge  in  Shropshire;  it  was  a  male,  but  one  branch 
bore  female  flowers,  and  produced  berries;  these,  being  sown,  pro- 
duced seventeen  trees  all  of  which  had  exactly  the  same  peculiar 
habit  with  the  parent-tree."*^ 

These  facts,  it  might  have  been  thought,  would  have  been  suffi- 
cient to  render  it  probable  that  a  pendulous  habit  would  in  all 
cases  be  strictly  inherited.  But  let  us  look  to  the  other  side.  Mr. 
MacNab*-  sowed  seeds  of  the  Aveeping  beech  {Fagiis  sylvatica),  but 
succeeded  in  raising  only  common  beeches.  Mr.  Rivers,  at  my  re- 
quest, raised  a  number  of  seedlings  from  three  distinct  varieties  of 
weeping  elm;  and  at  least  one  of  the  parent-trees  was  so  situated 
that  it  could  not  have  been  crossed  by  any  other  elm;  but  none 
of  the  young  trees,  now  about  a  foot  or  two  in  height,  show  the  least 
signs  of  weeping.  Mr.  Rivers  formerly  sow^ed  above  twenty  thousand 
seeds  of  the  weeping  ash  {Fraxinus  excelsior),  and  not  a  single 
seedling  was  in  the  least  degree  pendulous:  in  Germany,  M.  Borch- 
meyer  raised  a  thousand  seedlings,  with  the  same  result.  Never- 
theless, Mr.  Anderson,  of  the  Chelsea  Botanic  Garden,  by  sowing 
seed  from  a  weeping  ash,  which  was  found  before  the  year  1780, 
in  Cambridgeshire,  raised  several  pendulous  trees.^^  Professor  lien- 
slow  also  informs  me  that  some  seedlings  from  a  female  weeping 
ash  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Cambridge  were  at  first  a  little 
pendulous,  but  afterwards  became  c[uite  upright:  it  is  probable 
that  this  latter  tree,  which  transmits  to  a  certain  extent  its  pen- 
dulous habit,  was  derived  by  a  bud  from  the  same  original  Cam- 
bridgeshire stock;  whilst  other  w^eeping  ashes  may  have  had  a  dis- 
tinct origin.  But  the  crowning  case,  communicated  to  me  by  ]\Ir. 
Rivers,  which  shows  how  capricious  is  the  inheritance  of  a  pendu- 
lous habit,  is  that  a  variety  of  another  species  of  ash  [F.  lentisci- 

3^  Loudon's   '  Gard.    Mag.,'   vol.  of  Shropshire.' p.  49":  and  Charles- 

xii.,   1N3().   p.   3r,8.  worth's  •  Ma,ir.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol. 

*^  Verlot,      '  La     Product,     des  i.,    18.37,    p.    .30.      I    possess    pros- 

Varietes,'   1805,   p.   04.  trate   trees   produced   from   these 

*°  Bronn's  '  Geschichte  der  Na-  seeds, 
tur,'    b.    ii.    s.    121.      Mr.    Meehan  -^^  Verlot,   op.  eit.,   p.  9.3. 

makes     a     similar     statement     in  ^^  pq^.  these  several  statements, 

'Proc.  Nat.  of  Philadelphia,'  1872,  see    Loudon's    'Gard.    Magazine,' 

p.  23.").  vol.  X..  1834,  pp.  408,  180;  and  vol. 

"  Rev.  W.  A.  Leighton,   '  Flora  ix.,  1833,  p.  597. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE. 


451 


folia),  now  about  twenty  years  old,  wliich  was  formerly  i>enauloui», 
"has  long  lost  this  habit,  every  shoot  being  reinarkahry  iMet-t;  but 
seedlings  formerly  raised  from  it  were  perfectly  pro.strate,  the  Bteiiia 
not  rising  more  than  two  inches  above  the*  ground.  "  'Ihiis  iliu 
weeping  variety  of  the  common  ash,  which  has  been  cxtcnHJvely 
propagated  by  buds  during  a  long  period,  did  not  witli  Mr.  KiverH, 
transmit  its  character  to  one  seedling  out  of  uIxjvc  twcntv  thou- 
sand; whereas  the  weeping  variety  of  a  second  .spcci<'s  of  ash',  which 
could  not,  whilst  grown  in  the  same  garden,  retain  its  own  weep- 
ing character,  transmitted  to  its  seedlings  the  pendulous  habit  in 
excess ! 

Many  analogous  facts  could  be  given,  showing  iiow  appan-ntly 
capricious  is  the  principle  of  inheritance.  All  the  seedlings  from  a 
variety  of  the  Barberry  (B.  vulgaris)  with  red  leaves  inherited 
the  same  character;  only  about  one-third  of  the  seedlings  of  the 
copper  beech  {Fagiis  sylvatica)  had  purple  leaves.  Not  one  out  of 
a  hundred  seedlings  of  a  variety  of  the  Ccraxiis  padus,  with  yel- 
low fruit,  bore  yellow  fruit:  one-twelfth  of  the  seedlings  of  the 
variety  of  Cornus  mascula,  with  yellow  fruit,  came  true:  •*  and 
lastly,  all  the  trees  raised  by  my  father  from  a  yellow-berried  holly 
[Ilex  aquifolium) ,  found  wild,  produced  yellow  berries.  \'ilniorin  ** 
observed  in  a  bed  of  Saponaria  calabrica  an  extremely  dwarf  va- 
riety, and  raised  from  it  a  large  number  of  seedlings;  some  of  these 
partially  resembled  their  parent,  and  he  selected  their  seed;  but 
the  grandchildren  were  not  in  the  least  dwarfed:  on  the  other 
hand,  he  observed  a  stunted  and^  bushy  variety  of  Tagctrs  Hitjnata 
growing  in  the  midst  of  the  common  varieties  by  which  it  wa* 
probably  crossed;  for  most  of  the  seedlings  raised  from  this  plant 
were  intermediate  in  character,  only  two  perfectly  resembling  their 
parent;  but  seed  saved  from  these  two  plants  reproduced  the  new- 
variety  so  truly,  that  hardly  any  selection  has  since  been  neces- 
sary. 

Flowers  transmit  their  colour  truly,  or  most  capriciously. 
Many  annuals  come  true:  thus  I  purchased  German  seeils  of 
thirty-four  named  sub-varieties  of  one  race  of  ten-week  stix-ks 
{Matthiola  annua),  and  raised  a  hundred  and  forty  plants,  all  of 
which,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  plant,  came  true.  In  saying 
this,  however,  it  must  be  understood  that  I  could  distinguish  only 
twenty  kinds  out  of  the  thirty-four  named  sub-varieties;  nor  did 
the  colour  of  the  flower  always  correspond  with  the  name  aWwcd 
to  the  packet;  but  I  say  that  they  came  true,  because  in  ea<l>  of 
the  thirty-six  short  rows  every  plant  was  absolutely  alike,  with  the 
one  single  exception.  Again,  I  procured  packets  of  (Jerman  .noed 
of  twenty-five  named  varieties  of  common  and  (|uilled  asters,  and 
raised  a  hundred  and  twenty-four  plants;  of  these,  all  except  ten 
were  true  in  the  above  limited  sense;  and  I  consuhued  even  a 
wrong  shade  of  colour  as  false. 

**  These  statements   are   taken  "  Verlot.  '  La  Product,  dos  Vn- 

from    Alph.    De    Candolle,    '  Bot.       rl6t6s,'  p.  38. 
G§ograph.,'  p.  1083. 
30 


452  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

It  is  a  singular  circumstance  that  white  varieties  generally 
transmit  their  colour  much  more  truly  than  any  other  variety. 
This  fact  probably  stands  in  close  relation  with  one  observed  by 
Verlot/"  namely,  that  flowers  which  are  normally  white  rarely  vary 
into  any  other  colour.  I  have  found  that  the  white  varieties  of 
DcJphin'unn  consollda  and  of  the  Stock  are  the  truest.  It  is,  in- 
deed, sufficient  to  look  through  a  nurseryman's  seed-list,  to  see  the 
large  number  of  white  varieties  which  can  be  propagated  by  seed. 
The  several  coloured  varieties  of  the  sweet-pea  [Lathyrus  odoratus) 
are  very  true;  but  I  hear  from  Mr.  Masters,  of  Canterbury,  who 
has  particularly  attended  to  this  plant,  that  the  white  variety  is 
the  truest.  The  hyacinth,  when  propagated  by  seed,  is  extremely 
inconstant  in  colour,  but  "  white  hyacinths  almost  always  give  by 
seed  white-flowered  plants ;  "  *~  and  Mr.  Masters  informs  me  that 
the  yellow  varieties  also  reproduce  their  colour,  but  of  diflferent 
shades.  On  the  other  hand,  pink  and  blue  varieties,  the  latter 
being  the  natural  colour,  are  not  nearly  so  true:  hence,  as  Mr. 
Masters  has  remarked  to  me,  "  we  see  that  a  garden  variety  may 
acquire  a  more  permanent  habit  than  a  natural  species;  "  but  it 
should  have  been  added,  that  this  occurs  under  cultivation,  and 
therefore  under  changed  conditions. 

With  many  flowers,  especially  perennials,  nothing  can  be  more 
fluctuating  than  the  colour  of  the  seedlings,  as  is  notoriously  the 
case  with  verbenas,  carnations,  dahlias,  cinerarias,  and  others.**  I 
sowed  seed  of  twelve  named  varieties  of  Snapdragon  (Antirrhinum 
ma  jits),  and  utter  confusion  was  the  result.  In  most  cases  the 
extremely  fluctuating  colour  of  seedling  plants  is  probably  in  chief 
part  due  to  crosses  between  differently-coloured  varieties  during 
previous  generations.  It  is  almost  certain  that  this  is  the  case 
with  the  polyanthus  and  coloured  primrose  {Primula  veris  and 
vulgaris),  from  their  reciprocally  dimorphic  structure;  **  and.  these 
are  plants  which  florists  speak  of  as  never  coming  true  by  seed: 
but  if  care  be  taken  to  prevent  crossing,  neither  species  is  by  any 
means  very  inconstant  in  colour;  thus  I  raised  twenty-three  plants 
from  a  purple  primrose,  fertilised  by  M.  J.  Scott  with  its  pollen, 
and  eighteen  came  up  purple  of  different  shades,  and  only  five  re- 
verted to  the  ordinary  yellow  colour:  again.  I  raised  twenty  plants 
from  a  bright-red  cowslip,  similarly  treated  by  Mr.  Scott,  and  every 
one  perfectly  resembled  its  parent  in  colour,  as  likewise  did,  with 
the  exception  of  a  single  plant,  72  grandchildren.  Even  with  the 
most  variable  flowers,  it  is  probable  that  each  delicate  shade  of 
colour  might  be  permanently  fixed  so  as  to  be  transmitted  by  seed, 
by  cultivation  in  the  same  soil,  by  long-continued  selection,  and 
especially  by  the  prevention  of  crosses.  I  infer  this  from  certain 
annual  larkspurs  (Delphinium  consolida  and  ajacis),  of  which 
common  seedlings  present  a  greater  diversity  of  colour  than  any 

""Op.   cit.,  p.  50.  p.    456;    '  Gard.    Chron.,'    1845,    p. 

*T  Alph.     De     CanfloUe,     '  Geo-  102. 
graph.  Fot..'  p.  lOS'^.  *^  Darwin,  in  '  Journal  of  Proc. 

*^Ser  'Cottage  Gardener.'  April  Linn.  Soc.  Bot.,'  18G2,  p.  94. 
10,  1860,  p.  18,  and  Sept.  10,  1861, 


Chap.  XII.  IXHERITANCE.  453 

other  plant  known  to  me;  yet  on  procuring  seed  of  five  named 
German  varieties  of  D.  cotifiolida,  only  nine  plants  out  of  ninety- 
four  were  false;  and  the  seedlings  of  six  varieties  of  I),  ajacis  were 
true  in  the  same  manner  and  degree  as  with  the  stocks  above  de- 
scribed. A  distinguished  botanist  maintains  that  the  annual  spe- 
cies of  Delphinium  are  always  self-fertilised;  therefore  1  may  men- 
tion that  thirty-two  flowers  on  a  branch  of  D.  consolida,  enclosed 
in  a  net,  yielded  twenty-seven  capsules,  with  an  average  of  17.2 
seed  in  each;  whilst  five  flowers,  under  the  same  net,  which  were 
artificially  fertilised,  in  the  same  manner  as  must  be  effected  by 
bees  during  their  incessant  visits,  yielded  five  capsules  with  an 
average  of  35.2  fine  seed ;  and  this  shows  that  the  agency  of  insects 
is  necessary  for  the  full  fertility  of  this  plant.  Analogous  facts 
could  be  given  with  respect  to  the  crossing  of  many  other  flowers, 
such  as  carnations,  &c.,  of  which  the  varieties  fluctuate  much  in 
colour. 

As  with  flowers,  so  with  our  domesticated  animals,  no  character 
is  more  variable  than  colour,  and  probably  in  no  animal  more  so 
than  with  the  horse.  Yet,  with  a  little  care  in  breeding,  it  appears 
that  races  of  any  colour  might  soon  be  formed.  Hofacker  gives 
the  result  of  matching  two  hundred  and  sixteen  mares  of  four  dif- 
ferent colours  with  like-coloured  stallions,  without  regard  to  the 
colour  of  their  ancestors;  and  of  the  two  hundred  and  sixteen  colts 
born,  eleven  alone  failed  to  inherit  the  colour  of  their  parents: 
Autenrieth  and  Amnion  assert  that,  after  two  generations,  colts  of 
a  uniform  colour  are  produced  with  certainty.*" 

In  a  few  cases  peculiarities  fail  to  be  inherited,  appar- 
ently from  the  force  of  inheritance  being  too  strong.  I 
have  been  assured  by  breeders  of  the  canary-bird  that  to  get 
a  good  jonquil-coloured  bird  it  does  not  answer  to  pair  two 
jonquils,  as  the  colour  then  comes  out  too  strong,  or  is  even 
brown;  but  this  statement  is  disputed  by  other  breeders.  So 
again,  if  two  crested  canaries  are  paired,  the  young  birds 
rarely  inherit  this  character :  ^^  for  in  crested  birds  a  narrow 
space  of  bare  skin  is  left  on  the  back  of  the  head,  where  the 
feathers  are  up-turned  to  form  the  crest,  and,  when  both 
parents  are  thus  characterised,  the  bareness  becomes  exces- 
sive, and  the  crest  itself  fails  to  be  developed.  Mr.  Hewitt, 
speaking  of  Laced  Sebright  Bantams,  says  ^'  that,  "  why  this 
should  be  so  I  know  not,  but  I  am  confident  that  those  that 
are  best  laced  frequently  produce   offspring  very   far  from 

5°  Hofacker,  '  Ueber  die  Eigen-  ries,   informs  mo  that  lie  believes 

schaften,'   etc.,   s.  10.  that  tliose  statements  aro  correct. 

51  Bechstein.     '  Naturgeschichto  ='-  '  The    Ponltrv    Book,'    by    W. 

Deutschlands.'  b.  iv.   s.  402.     Mr.  B.   Tegetmeier,   18GG,  p.  24o. 
Brent,    a   great   breeder  of   caua- 


454  INHERITAXCE.  Chap.  XII. 

perfect  in  their  markings,  whilst  those  exhibited  by  myself, 
which  have  so  often  proved  successful,  were  bred  from  the 
union  of  heavily-laced  birds  with  those  that  were  scarcely 
sufficiently  laced." 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that,  although  several  deaf-mutes 
often  occur  in  the  same  family,  and  though  their  cousins  and 
other  relations  are  often  in  the  same  condition,  yet  their 
parents  are  rarely  deaf-mutes.  To  give  a  single  instance: 
not  one  scholar  out  of  148,  who  were  at  the  same  time  in  the 
London  Institution,  was  the  child  of  parents  similarly  af- 
fected. So  again,  when  a  male  or  female  deaf-mute  marries 
a  sound  person,  their  children  are  most  rarely  affected:  in 
Ireland,  out  of  203  children  thus  produced  one  alone  was 
raute.  Even  when  both  parents  have  been  deaf-mutes,  as  in 
the  case  of  forty-one  marriages  in  the  United  States  and  of 
six  in  Ireland,  only  two  deaf  and  dumb  children  were  pro- 
duced. Mr.  Sedgwick,^^  in  commenting  on  this  remarkable 
and  fortunate  failure  in  the  power  of  transmission  in  the 
direct  line,  remarks  that  it  may  possibly  be  owing  to  "  excess 
having  reversed  the  action  of  some  natural  law  in  develop- 
m.ent."  But  it  is  safer  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
to  look  at  the  whole  case  as  simply  unintelligible. 

Although  many  congenital  monstrosities  are  inherited,  of 
which  examples  have  already  been  given,  and  to  which  may 
be  added  the  lately  recorded  case  of  the  transmission  during 
a  century  of  hare-lip  with  a  cleft-palate  in  the  writer's  own 
family,"  yet  other  malformations  are  rarely  or  never  in- 
herited. Of  these  latter  cases,  many  are  probably  due  to  in- 
juries in  the  womb  or  egg,  and  would  come  under  the  head  of 
non-inherited  injuries  or  mutilations.  With  plants,  a  long 
catalogue  of  inherited  monstrosities  of  the  most  serious  and 
diversified  nature  could  easily  be  given;  and  with  plants, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  monstrosities  are  caused 
by  direct  injuries  to  the  seed  or  embryo. 

With  respect  to  the  inheritance  of  structures  mutilated  by 
injuries  or  altered  by  disease,  it  was  until  lately  difficult  to 

^^  '  Bi-itish    and    Foreign    Med.-  with     ample     references,     that     I 

Chirnrs:.  Review.'  Jnlv.  1861.  pp.  need  refer  to  no  other  anthorities. 
200-204.     Mr.  Sedfjwiek  has  given  54^ii._  j^jproule.  in    '  British  Medi- 

such  full  details  on  this  subject,  cal  Journal,'  April  18,  1863. 


Chap.  XIL  INHERITANCE.  455 

come  to  any  definite  conclusion.  Some  mutilations  have  been 
practised  for  a  vast  number  of  generations  without  any  in- 
herited result.  Godron  remarks  ^^  that  different  races  of  man 
have  from  time  immemorial  knocked  out  their  upper  incisors, 
cut  off  joints  of  their  fingers,  made  holes  of  immense  size 
through  the  lobes  of  the  ears  or  through  their  nostrils, 
tattooed  themselves,  made  deep  gashes  in  various  parts  of 
their  bodies,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  these  mu- 
tilations have  ever  been  inherited."'"  Adhesions  due  to  in- 
flammation and  pits  from  the  small-pox  (and  formerly  many 
consecutive  generations  must  have  been  thus  pitted)  are 
not  inherited.  With  respect  to  Jews,  I  have  been  assured  by 
three  medical  men  of  the  Jewish  faith  that  circumcision, 
which  has  been  practised  for  so  many  ages,  has  produced  no 
inherited  effect.  Blumenbach,  however,  asserts  *'  that  Jews 
are  often  born  in  Germany  in  a  condition  rendering  circum- 
cision difficult,  so  that  a  name  is  given  them  signifying  "  born 
circumcised ;  "  and  Professor  Preyer  informs  me  that  this  is 
the  case  in  Bonn,  such  children  being  considered  the  special 
favourites  of  Jehovah.  I  have  also  heard  from  Dr.  A.  New- 
man, of  Guy's  Hospital,  of  the  grandson  of  a  circumcised  Jew, 
the  father  not  having  been  circumcised,  in  a  similar  condi- 
tion. But  it  is  possible  that  all  these  cases  may  be  accidental 
coincidences,  for  Sir  J.  Paget  has  seen  five  sons  of  a  lady  and 
one  son  of  her  sister  with  adherent  prepuces ;  and  one  of  these 
boys  was  affected  in  a  manner  "  which  might  be  considered 
like  that  commonly  produced  by  circumcision;  "  yet  there  was 
no  suspicion  of  Jewish  blood  in  the  family  of  these  two  sis- 
ters. Circumcision  is  practised  by  Mohammedans,  but  at  a 
later  age  than  by  Jews;  and  Dr.  Riedel,  Assistant  Resident 
in  I^orth  Celebes,  writes  to  me  that  the  boys  there  go  naked 
until  from  six  to  ten  years  old;  and  he  has  observed  that 
many  of  them,  though  not  all,  have  their  prepuces  much 
reduced  in  length,  and  this  he  attributes  to  the  inherited 

"  '  De  I'Espece,'  torn,  ii.,  1859,  with  these  tribes,  that  sometimes 

p    299  a     child     was     born     with     these 

56  Nevertheless    Mr     \yetherell  marks.      This    was    contirmetl    by- 
states,     '  Nature,'    Deo..    1870,    p.  the     U.     S.     Government     Indian 
168,   that   when  he  visited   fifteen  Agent."  ^      ,,        ,        ,     , 
years   ago   the   Sioux   Indians,    he             "  '  Philosoph.    Mag.,     vol.    iv., 
was    informed    "  by    a    physician,  1799,  p.  5. 
who  has  passed  much  of  his  time 


456  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

effects  of  the  operation.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom  oaks  and 
other  trees  have  borne  galls  from  primeval  times,  yet  they 
do  not  produce  inherited  excrescences;  and  many  other  such 
facts  could  be  adduced. 

Notwithstanding  the  above  several  negative  cases,  we 
now  possess  conclusive  evidence  that  the  effects  of  operations 
are  sometimes  inherited.  Dr.  Brown- Sequard  **  gives  the 
following  summary  of  his  observations  on  guinea-pigs;  and 
this  summary  is  so  important  that  I  will  quote  the  whole: — • 

"  1st.  Appearance  of  epilepsy  in  animals  born  of  parents  having 
been  rendered  epileptic  by  an  injury  to  the  spinal  cord. 

"  2nd.  Appearance  of  epilepsy  also  in  animals  born  of  parents 
having  been  rendered  epileptic  by  the  section  of  the  sciatic  nerve. 

"  3rd.  A  change  in  the  shape  of  the  ear  in  animals  born  of  par- 
ents in  which  such  a  change  was  the  effect  of  a  division  of  the 
cervical  sympathetic  nerve. 

"  4th.  Partial  closure  of  the  eyelids  in  animals  born  of  parents 
in  which  that  state  of  the  eyelids  had  been  caused  either  by  the 
section  of  the  cervical  sympathetic  nerve  of  the  removal  of  the  su- 
perior cervical  ganglion. 

"  5th.  Exophthalmia  in  animals  born  of  parents  in  which  an  in- 
jury to  the  restiform  body  had  produced  that  protrusion  of  the 
eyeball.  This  interesting  fact  I  have  witnessed  a  good  many  times, 
and  I  have  seen  the  transmission  of  the  morbid  state  of  the  eye 
continue  through  four  generations.  In  these  animals,  modified  by 
heredity,  the  two  eyes  generally  protruded,  although  in  the  parents 
usually  onh^  one  showed  exophthalmia,  the  lesion  having  been 
made  in  most  cases  only  on  one  of  the  corpora  restiformia. 

"  6th.  Hoematoma  and  dry  gangrene  of  the  ears  in  animals  born 
of  parents  in  which  these  ear-alterations  had  been  caused  by  an  in- 
jury to  the  restiform  body  near  the  nib  of  the  calamus. 

"  7th.  Absence  of  two  toes  out  of  the  three  of  the  hind  leg,  and 
sometimes  of  the  three,  in  animals  whose  parents  had  eaten  up 
their  hind-leg  toes  which  had  become  anaesthetic  from  a  section  of 
the  sciatic  nerve  alone,  or  of  that  nerve  and  also  of  the  crural. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  complete  absence  of  the  toes,  only  a  part  of 
one  or  two  or  three  was  missing  in  the  young,  although  in  the  par- 
ent not  only  the  toes  but  the  whole  foot  was  absent  (partly  eaten 
off,  partly  destroyed  by  inflammation,  ulceration,  or  gangrene). 

"  Sth.  Appearance  of  various  morbid  states  of  the  skin  and 
hair  of  the  neck  and  face  in  animals  born  of  parents  having  had 
similar  alterations  in  the  same  parts,  as  effects  of  an  injury  to  the 
sciatic  nerve." 

58  '  Proc.  Royal  Soc.,'  vol.  x.  p.  Obersteiner.       '  Strieker's       Med. 

297.     'Communication  to  the  Brit.  Jahrbiicher,'  1875,  No.  2,  has  con- 

AsRoc.,'  1870.     'The  Lancet.'  Jan.,  firmed   Brown-Sequard's   observa- 

1875,  p.  7.     The  extracts  are  from  tions. 
this  last  paper.     It  appears  that 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  45f 

It  should  be  especially  observed  that  Brown-Sequard  has. 
bred  during  thirty  years  many  thousand  guinea-pigs  from, 
animals  which  had  not  been  operated  upon,  and  not  one  of 
these  manifested  the  epileptic  tendency.  Nor  has  he  ever 
seen  a  guinea-pig  born  without  toes,  which  was  not  the  off- 
spring of  parents  which  had  gnawed  off  their  own  toes  owing, 
to  the  sciatic  nerve  having  been  divided.  Of  this  latter  fact 
thirteen  instances  were  carefully  recorded,  and  a  greater 
number  were  seen;  yet  Brown-Sequard  speaks  of  such  cases, 
as  one  of  the  rarer  forms  of  inheritance.  It  is  a  still  more; 
interesting  fact — 

"  That  the  sciatic  nerve  in  the  congenitally  toele-ss  animals  has. 
inherited  the  power  of  passing  through  all  the  dilferent  morbid 
states  which  have  occurred  in  one  of  its  parents  from  the  time  of 
the  division  till  after  its  reunion  with  the  peripheric  end.  It  is. 
not  therefore  simply  the  power  of  performing  an  action  which  is. 
inherited,  but  the  power  of  performing  a  whole  series  of  actions, 
in  a  certain  order." 

In  most  of  the  cases  of  inheritance  recorded  by  Brown-Se- 
quard only  one  of  the  two  parents  had  been  operated  upon 
and  was  affected.  He  concludes  by  expressing  his  belief  that 
"  what  is  transmitted  is  the  morbid  state  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem," due  to  the  operation  performed  on  the  parents. 

With  the  low^er  animals  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas  has  collected  a 
long  list  of  inherited  injuries.  A  few  instances  will  suffice.. 
A  cow  lost  a  horn  from  an  accident  with  consequent  suppur- 
ation, and  she  produced  three  calves  which  were  hornless  on 
the  same  side  of  the  head.  With  the  horse,  there  seems  hardly 
a  doubt  that  exostoses  on  the  legs,  caused  by  two  much  travel- 
ling on  hard  roads,  are  inherited.  Blumenbach  records  the- 
case  of  a  man  who  had  his  little  finger  on  the  right  hand  al- 
most cut  off,  and  which  in  consequence  grew  crooked,  and  his 
sons  had  the  same  finger  on  the  same  hand  similarly  crooked. 
A  soldier,  fifteen  years  before  his  marriage,  lost  his  left  eye 
from  purulent  ophthalmia,  and  his  two  sons  were  microph- 
thalmic  on  the  same  side.'^     In  all  cases  in  which  a  parent 

59  This   last   case   is   quoted   bv  also.    Dr.    P.    Lucas.    '  TraitC^    de 

Mr.     Serlirwiok     in     'British     and  I'HOrecl.     Nat..'    torn,    ii^    p.    402. 

Foreign  Medico-rhirurs;.   Review.'  Also.   '  Transact.   Linn.   Soc.    vol. 

April,  ISGl.   p.  484.     For  Blumen-  ix.    p.    323.      Some    curious    oases 

bach,  see  above-cited  paper.     See,  are   given   by    Mr.    Baker   in   the- 


458  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

laas  had  an  organ  injured  on  one  side,  and  two  or  more 
of  the  offspring  are  born  with  the  same  organ  affected  on  the 
same  side,  the  chances  against  mere  coincidence  are  almost 
infinitely  great.  Even  when  only  a  single  child  is  born  hav- 
ing exactly  the  same  part  of  the  body  affected  as  that  of  his 
injured  parent,  the  chances  against  coincidence  are  great; 
and  Professor  Rolleston  has  given  me  two  such  cases  which 
Jiave  fallen  under  his  own  observation, — namely  of  two  men, 
one  of  whom  had  his  knee  and  the  other  his  cheek  severely 
«cut,  and  both  had  children  born  with  exactly  the  same  spot 
marked  or  scarred.  Many  instances  have  been  recorded  of 
cats,  dogs,  and  horses,  which  have  had  their  tails,  legs,  &c., 
amputated  or  injured,  producing  offspring  with  the  same 
parts  ill- formed;  but  as  it  is  not  very  rare  for  similar  mal- 
formations to  appear  spontaneously,  all  such  cases  may  be 
•due  to  coincidence.  It  is,  however,  an  argument  on  the  other 
side  that  "  under  the  old  excise  laws  "  the  shepherd-dog  was 
only  exempt  from  tax  when  without  "  a  tail,  and  for  this 
Teason  it  was  always  removed ;  "  ''"  and  there  still  exists  breeds 
■of  the  shepherd-dog  which  are  always  born  destitute  of  a  tail, 
finally,  it  must  be  admitted,  more  especially  since  the  publi- 
cation of  Brown-Sequard's  observations,  that  the  effects  of 
injuries,  especially  when  followed  by  disease,  or  perhaps  ex- 
■clusively  when  thus  followed,  are  occasionally  inherited/ 


61 


Causes  of  Non-inheritance. 

A  large  number  of  cases  of  non-inheritance  are  intelli- 
gible on  the  principle,  that  a  strong  tendency  to  inheritance 
does  exist,  but  that  it  is  overborne  by  hostile  or  unfavourable 
'Conditions  of  life.  ISTo  one  would  expect  that  our  improved 
pigs,  if  forced  during  several  generations  to  travel  about  and 
root  in  the  ground  for  their  own  subsistence,  would  transmit, 
as  truly  as  they  now  do  their  short  muzzles  and  legs,  and 

*  Veterinary,'     vol.     xiii.     p.     723.  as     the     barbs     are     consenitally 

Another  curious  case  is  given  in  somewhat    reduced   on    the    same 

the    '  Annales    des    Scienc.    Nat.,'  part   of  these  feathers,    it   seems 

1st  series,  torn.  xi.  p.  824.  extremely  probable,  as  Mr.  Salvin 

60  '  rpfjp    Dog,'    bv    Stonehenge,  remarks     ('  Proc.     Zoolog.     Soc.,' 

1807,  p.  lis.               ■  1873,   p.   429),   that  this  is  due  to 

"1  The  Mot-mot  habitually  bites  the  inherited  effects  of  long-con- 

the  barbs  off  the  middle  part  of  tinned  mutilation, 
the  two  central  tail-feathers,  and 


Chap.  XII.  NON-INHERITANCE.  459 

their  tendency  to  fatten.  Dray-horses  assuredly  would  not 
long  transmit  their  great  size  and  massive  limbs,  if  compelled 
to  live  on  a  cold,  damp  mountainous  region ;  we  have  indeed 
evidence  of  such  deterioration  in  the  horses  which  ha^e  run 
wild  on  the  Falkland  Islands.  European  dogs  in  India  often 
fail  to  transmit  their  true  character.  Our  sheep  in  tropical 
countries  lose  their  wool  in  a  few  generations.  There  seems 
also  to  be  a  close  relation  between  certain  peculiar  pastures 
and  the  inheritance  of  an  enlarged  tail  in  fat-tailed  sheep, 
which  form  one  of  the  most  ancient  breeds  in  the  world. 
With  plants,  we  have  seen  that  tropical  varieties  of  maize 
lose  their  proper  character  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  gen- 
erations, when  cultivated  in  Europe;  and  conversely  so  it 
is  with  European  varieties  cultivated  in  Brazil.  Our  cab- 
bages, w^hich  here  come  so  true  by  seed,  cannot  form  heads 
in  hot  countries.  According  to  Carriere,""  the  purple-leafed 
beech  and  barberry  transmit  their  character  by  seed  far  less 
truly  in  certain  districts  than  in  others.  Under  changed  cir- 
cumstances, periodical  habits  of  life  soon  fail  to  be  trans- 
mitted, as  the  period  of  maturity  in  summer  and  winter 
wheat,  barley,  and  vetches.  So  it  is  with  animals :  for  in- 
stance, a  person,  whose  statement  I  can  trust,  procured  eggs 
of  Aylesbury  ducks  from  that  town,  where  they  are  kept  in 
houses  and  are  reared  as  early  as  possible  for  the  London 
market;  the  ducks  bred  from  these  eggs  in  a  distant  part  of 
England,  hatched  their  first  brood  on  January  24th,  whilst 
common  ducks,  kept  in  the  same  yard  and  treated  in  the  same 
manner,  did  not  hatch  till  the  end  of  March;  and  this  shows 
that  the  period  of  hatching  was  inherited.  But  the  grand- 
children of  these  Aylesbury  ducks  completely  lost  their  habit 
of  early  incubation,  and  hatched  their  eggs  at  the  same 
time  with  the  common  ducks  of  the  same  place. 

Many  cases  of  non-inheritance  apparently  result  from  the 
conditions  of  life  continually  inducing  fresh  variability.  We 
have  seen  that  when  the  seeds  of  pears,  plums,  apples,  &c., 
are  sown,  the  seedlings  generally  inherit  some  degree  of 
family  likeness.  Mingled  with  these  seedlings,  a  few,  and 
sometimes  many,  w^orthless,  wild-looking  plants  commonly 
appear,  and  their  appearance  may  be  attributed  to  the  prin- 

"  '  Production  et  Fixation  dcs  Variet^s,'  1865,  p.  72. 


460  INHERITANCE.  Chap.  XII. 

ciple  of  reversion.     But  scarcely  a  single  seedling  will   be 
found  perfectly  to  resemble  the  parent-form;  and  this  may 
be  accounted  for  by  constantly  recurring  variability  induced 
by  the  conditions  of  life.     I  believe  in  this,  because  it  has 
been  observed  that  certain  fruit-trees  truly  propagate  their 
kind  whilst  growing  on  their  own  roots;  but  when  grafted 
on  other  stocks,  and  by  this  process  their  natural  state  is 
manifestly  affected,  they  produce  seedlings  which  vary  great- 
ly, departing  from  the  parental  type  in  many  characters.'" 
Metzger,  as  stated  in  the  ninth  chapter,  found  that  certain 
kinds  of  wheat  brought  from  Spain  and  cultivated  in  Ger- 
many,  failed   during   many   years   to    reproduce   themselves 
truly;  but  at  last,  when  accustomed  to  their  new  conditions, 
they  ceased  to  be  variable, — that  is,  they  became  amenable  to 
the  power  of  inheritance.     N"early  all  the  plants  which  cannot 
be  propagated  with  any  approach  to  certainty  by  seed,  are 
kinds  which  have  been  long  propagated  by  buds,  cuttings,  off- 
sets, tubers,  &c.,  and  have  in  consequence  been  frequently  ex- 
posed during  what  may  be  called  their  individual  lives  to 
w^idely  diversified  conditions  of  life.     Plants  thus  propagated 
become  so  variable,  that  they  are  subject,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  last  chapter,  even  to  bud-variation.     Our  domesticated 
animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  commonly  exposed  during 
the  life  of  the  individual  to  such  extremely  diversified  con- 
ditions, and  are  not  liable  to  such  extreme  variability ;  there- 
fore they  do  not  lose  the  power  of  transmitting  most  of  their 
characteristic  features.     In  the  foregoing  remarks  on  non- 
inheritance,  crossed  breeds  are  of  course  excluded,  as  their 
diversity   mainly   depends    on   the   unequal    development   of 
character  derived  from  either  parent  or  their  ancestors. 

Conclusion. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter  how 
commonly  new  characters  of  the  most  diversified  nature, 
whether  normal  or  abnormal,  injurious  or  beneficial,  whether 
affecting  organs  of  the  highest  or  most  trifling  importance, 
are  inherited.     It  is  often  sufficient  for  the  inheritance  of 

cs^Downing,   'Fruits  of  America,'   p.  5;   Sageret,   'Pom.    Pliys.,'  pp. 

4o,     i  M. 


Chap.  XII.  INHERITANCE.  4G1 

some  peculiar  character,  that  one  parent  alone  should  possess 
it,  as  in  most  cases  in  which  the  rarer  anomalies  have  been 
transmitted.  But  the  power  of  transmission  is  extremely  va- 
riable. In  a  number  of  individuals  descended  from  the  same 
parents,  and  treated  in  the  same  manneaj,  sojie  display  this 
power  in  a  perfect  manner,  and  in  someEi^uite  deficient; 
and  for  this  difference  no  reason  can  be  asS^nttl.  The  effects 
of  injuries  or  multilations  are  occasionaHjjgiAii^rited;  and  we 
shall  see  in  a  future  chapter  that  the  long^oi^inued  use  and 
disuse  of  parts  produces  an  inherited  effecj^  I^cn  those  char- 
acters which  are  considered  the  most  Mcti(i)^ting,  such  as 
colour,  are  with  rare  exceptions  transmitted  much  more 
forcibly  than  is  generally  supposed.  ThS&vcWler,  indeed,  in 
all  cases  is  not  that  any  character  should^P^^nsmitted,  but 
that  the  power  of  inheritance  should  ever  faiS  The  checks 
to  inheritance,  as  far  as  we  know  them,  are,  firstly,  circum- 
stances hostile  to  the  particular  character  in  question;  sec- 
ondly, conditions  of  life  incessantly  inducing  fresh  varia- 
bility; and  lastly,  the  crossing  of  distinct  varieties  during 
some  previous  generation,  together  with  reversion  or  atavism 
• — that  is,  the  tendency  in  the  child  to  resemble  its  grand- 
parents or  more  remote  ancestors  instead  of  its  immediate 
parents.  This  latter  subject  will  be  discussed  in  the  follow- 
ing chapter. 

(2) 


END   OF   VOL.   I. 


/ 


N.  MANCHESTER, 
INDIANA 


* 


